WHY SLAVE TRADE TRADE WAS ABOLISHED

The question why and how slave trade was abolished is one of the complex issues which have involved many historians. Some scholars accredit the rise and success of abolition to growing moral or humanitarian efforts within Europe, Britain in particular, while other scholars consider the economic factors. It is now agreeable that abolition emerged due to a combination of all of these factors. This means both humanitarian and economic grounds are accountable;

* Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition. On one hand, the new invented machines came to replace human labour, thus slaves became useless. On the other hand, the Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.

* The American independence. The Americans won their independence from British in 1776. Apart from being source of pride, colonies were very important as a source of raw materials, particularly agricultural materials like tobacco, sisal and cotton. British therefore lost sources of raw materials, markets and area for investments of surplus capital. The abolition of slave trade was necessary to turn Africa the new area of influence.

* Sugar competition between British and French. The economic rivalry between France and Britain is undoubtedly among the factors pushed British to end slave trade. For a long time Britain was monopolizing sugar market in Europe. As the time went on, sugar from the West Indian plantations now faced competition from cheaper sugar flowing into the world market produced by French. The British desire to protect their market, wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European powers which solely depended on slave labour

* The role of individual economic thinkers. Many scholars and philosophers contributed in the abolition of slave trade through their writings. Standing the tallest in the thick forest was the Scottish economist Adam Smith. Adam Smith is the best known for his influential work, The Wealth Of a Nations, in which he argued for a free market economy, emphasizing that the free man can provide his best than a slave. He provided that ‘From the experience of all ages and nations, I believe that the work done by free men comes cheaper in the end than the work performed by a slaves.’ He endorsed anti-slavery perspective based on economic principles, arguing that the best economy is one in which individuals act freely.

* An influence of the French revolution of 1789. The revolution emphasized on liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of these essentials of life. Thus abolition of slave trade was in some ways a movements to spread the beautiful ideas brought by French revolution.

* Evangelical reason. Abolition of slave trade was certainly also an outcome of religious movements. Religious revival in Europe preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity.

* The role of individual abolitionists. British anti-slavery campaign was also pressurized by theInfluential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliament), Granville sharp, and Fowell Buxton cannot be underestimated. Under chairmanship of Granville, the anti-slavery society was formed for affecting the abolition o slave trade.

Effects of abolition of slave trade

* The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade

* It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to Africa

* Disintegration of some Empires which depended on slaves selling.

* The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of African continent

* African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities. 

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

It is incontrovertible truth that industrial revolution is one of the most far- reaching historical phenomena man has encountered. Not since the development of agriculture during the Neolithic times had there been such a remarkable event in society. Almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. It changed the entire life of man.

What is industrial revolution?

This was the rapid development of industry that occurred in Europe from the late 18th and 19thcenturies, brought about by the introduction of machinery. It was the fundamental development in industrial sector that consequently transformed Europeans from agricultural to industrial societies.

Before the advent of industrial revolution, Britain was like other European communities, an agricultural society. Most people resided in small rural communities where their daily existence revolved around farming. Many places were tiny villages, and uninfrustructured Roads linking villages were poor hence most people travelled on foots and by horse.

In most part manufacturing was small and localized, done in homes or rural shops using hand tools or simple machines, mostly powered by people, animals or water waterwheels. Shortly, the majority suffered from the difficult lives, as incomes were meager. Gradually, the weak factory sector developed into large scale industry. This resulted to several positive changes like urbanization, increase of production in every production sector, and rapid increases of population. By the 1850, the Revolution had made Great Britain the wealthiest country in the world.

The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain

The industrial revolution in Europe didn't happen overnight. It was a gradual process occurred over a long period of time, historians generally agree that it had its beginnings in Britain in the second half of the eighteenth century. A number of factors contributed to Britain’s role as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.

* Abundant supply of important mineral resources. In the early days of industrial revolution coal and iron were the most important minerals. The Island kingdom of Great Britain was blessed having the most required minerals for industrial development. Large supplies of iron and coal that was the source of energy set a ground for industrialization. None of the other European nations had such large quantity of accessible coal.

* Stable government. Since the 17th century political revolutions, England had enjoyed a prolonged period without much political or social conflict, compared to many other countries in Europe. While the continental Europe was in a series of unabated inter-state and civil wars among themselves, the Great Britain was politically stable. This sense of stability and order encouraged the growth of business

* Superior banking system. Financial institutions also caused industrial revolution. Increased trade meant that financial service in England-such as banking, investment and insurance-expanded to support and protect that trade. Nowhere was Joint-stock companies ore highly developed than in Britain. The bank f England founded in 1694, Barclays bank (1756). Britani’s banking sector was more advanced and modern than those of other European countries. This meant that money was available to start up new business and pay for experiment to develop new inventions

* The effect of agrarian revolution. Agrarian revolution began in Britain and Holland then spread to the rest of the world. The changes adopted in agricultural sector had great impact in English society. The old open-field was replaced by the modern enclosure system. The industrial sector had much benefited from it. This had not only led to a significant increase in food production, but also the supply of cheap and abundant labour emerged as the enclosure movement forced many landless farmers to move to towns and cities. 

* The role of government. The English government was sympathetic to industrial development. The rise of House of Commons after the 17th c revolution became an instrument of middle class to gain government cooperation and secured middle class loyalty. The parliamentary legislations favoured industrial progress

* Early acquisition of colonies. British had for long established vast colonial empire since mercantile era. It is argued that the British Empire had expanded to cover the quarter of the world. Many of the British colonies provided raw materials, workforce (in the form of slaves) and customers needed to drive the industrial revolution. Britain controlled more colonies and therefore had access to more raw materials and markets than any other European nation.

* Better transportation system. Britain also developed from its geographical advantages. The island is firstly blessed with the abundant rivers. From the mid-seventeenth century onward, both private and public investment poured into the construction of new roads, bridges, and, beginning in the 1750s and 1760s, canals. By 1780, roads, rivers, and canals linked the major industrial centers of the North, the Midlands, London, and the Atlantic.

As noted above the industrial revolution had firstly occurred in the Great Britain. When the Britain’s economy began to move in new industrial directions around 1750s, continental countries lagged behind because they did not share some of the advantages that had made Britain’s Industrial Revolution possible. Not until after 1850 did the Industrial Revolution spread to the rest of Europe and other parts of the world. It spread to the continental countries of Europe at different times during the nineteenth century. First to be industrialized on the Continent were Belgium, France, and the German states. 

General factors for industrial revolution

* Agrarian revolution. The Agricultural Revolutions preceded the Industrial Revolutions. This was thesudden and radical changes took place in agricultural sector between 16th to 18th centuries. Here the new methods of farming were adopted everywhere in Europe with the purpose of increasing agricultural output. These involved among others enclosure system, crop rotation, scientific breeding and mechanization of agriculture. The Agricultural Revolution paved the way for the Industrial Revolution in Britain. New farming techniques led to amplified production of both food and raw materials. On the other way, the enclosure movement evicted many people from their land, and turned them labourers in industries.

* Colonial conquest. No doubt those European powers had much benefited from the colonies. Colonies provided raw materials, workforce and customers needed to drive the industrial revolution. Britain, Portugal, Spain and France had controlled many colonies in both Africa and America. The forced flow of people and material from Africa resulted in great wealth in Europe. The profits gained from the transatlantic slave trade and then later from the exploitation of Africa by taking direct control over the land (colonialism) were used to develop the West.

* Demographic revolution. One of the factors was the unusually high growth in the population which set in around the middle of the 18th century in Europe. In England the number of people increased from 4 million in 1600 to 6 millions in 1700 and 9 million by the end of eighteenth century. The population in France rose from 17 million in 1700 to 26 millions about hundred years later. This had not ony widened internal market, but abundant labour force for industries.

* The early advancements in science and technology. A century preceding industrial revolution witnessed marvelous advancement in science and technology. Several invention and innovations made during the time led to industrial revolution. For example Thomas Savery’s steam engine (1698), had great impacts to the development if industrial sector in Europe.

THE RISE OF WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS

It cannot be denied that the industrial revolution improved the living standards of most people across Britain. It brought many great changes to the country. However, the obvious winners we the industrialists, the people who had owned factories and mines. The working class was outraged by everything the industrial revolution had brought in Europe. Before the introduction of machinery, the manufacturing activities were carried out in the workingman's home. Majority Englishmen could earn their lives from hand manufacturing. With the coming of the machines these conditions were radically changed. The introduction of machinery brought in its train the gradual and painful decline of hand labour. Thus, while the factory owners were celebrating accumulation of profits, workers were victims of poor working and living conditions. This marked the beginning of what came to be known as the working class movements. These movements assumed wide dimension from the year 1811 onwards. At first, the thousands of artisans and home-workers known by the luddites planed the wholesale destruction of machinery and organized factory revolts. Though little achieved, the other movement based on political reforms occurred in 1830s. To cut the long story short, industrial revolution had to the class of commoners resulted to the;

* Poor working and living conditions. Life was very difficult for workers who struggled to survive on low wages and were forced to work in harsh conditions. Work environments were often dirty causing respiratory diseases to workers. 

* Absence of social security. In the early days of industrialisation owners operated without any governmental regulation. Workers had only the duty of providing their labour in the factories without and security by the government.

* Long working hours versus low wages. Owners of the factories always interested to accumulate wealth through exploiting the working class. This included enforcing long working hours and using cheaper labour.

* Women and child labour. Many of the early factory owners employed large number of women and children. These were seen as good because they were paid less. Thus children were dragged into working life with little opportunity t for education.

* Frequent accidents in work places. Most machines during the early days of their discovery were crude. Some moving parts were open, causing frequents accidents to operators. Accidents were common on workplaces. Many people died and many others wounded, others totally incapacitated without any compensation from their employers.

Thus, in different corners of England, workers riots began to fight for the betterment of their lives. Initially they attempted to break machines but were mercilessly suppressed by the government. This movement was known as Luddism. Therefore, working class movements refers to the movements organized by workers in Britain to fight for their rights. Luddism, Chartism and Trade Unionism were major workers movements.

 LUDDISM 1810’S

Luddism was the machine-breaking movement occurred during the first phase of industrial revolution. Poor living condition resulted from the new factory system caused the luddites oppose industrial technology. The workers and handicraftsmen, who had been torn from their customary way of life by the industrial changes and suffered most from them, began a desperate struggle against the factory system, destroying machinery, setting fire to factories, and rioting, in the efforts to save their livelihoods. The Luddite uprising began in Nottingham in 1811, and spread to Yorkshire 1812, and Lancashire 1813. The disturbances dominated all industrial cities until 1817. With massive sledgehammers and axes the men broke into a workshop to smash frames, the machines used. The movement derived its name from its mythical leader Ned Ludd who was believed to live in Sherwood Forest. The term Luddite is now used to describe someone who does not like new technology

What caused luddites movements?

* Unemployment. The major cause of the luddism was invention of new instruments or machines in the production. Luddites took to smashing machines that were replacing their jobs opportunities and abilities to raise money. No doubt that most of activities were previously performed by human labour. They became jobless after invention of machines especially in the later 18th century. Destroying machines was an alternative to restore their employments.

* Impact of the combination Act of 1799. Initially, textile workers then attempted to form Trade Unions to promote their demands and resist exploitations. After the passage of the Combination Acts of 1799 which made illegal any trade union organisation, draconian penalties for any form of association by workers. The Act left workers with no way to resolve their disputes with their employers, but rioting or machine breaking

* Bad economic situation resulted from the Napoleonic wars. France had during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte fought almost all European nations. Nap oleo had an intention of re-establishing the former Roman Empire under dominance of France. France fought Britain between 1807-1814. This led to the decline of British economy which in turn hardened the conditions of workers. It raised grievances among the workers, and thus the movement occurred

* Long working hours versus low wages. Owners of the factories always interested to accumulate wealth through exploiting the working class. This included enforcing long working hours and using cheaper labour. The skilled craftsmen became labourerd and suffered wages reduction in workplaces

* Women and child labour. Many of the early factory owners employed large number of women and children. T these were seen as good because they were paid less. Thus children were dragged into working life with little opportunity t for education.

* Frequent accidents in work places. Most machines during the early days of their discovery were crude. Some moving parts were open, causing frequents accidents to operators. Accidents were common on workplaces. Many people died and many others wounded, others totally incapacitated without any compensation from their employers.

Why the luddites failed?

* Government suppression. The movement lacked blessings of the government. The Luddites were being taken very seriously. Wherever the movement took place, the British government sent thousands of troops to suppress it. Perhaps the harshest measure against Luddism was the Frame Breaking Act of 1812 which made the destruction of machines a capital offense. A number of Luddites had been arrested and executed

* The movement occurred in locality. As it occurred in the first phase of industrial revolution, luddism was part of underground, but probably not nationwide, radical movement. The movement based on one region of Britain, midland. This made the movement itself weak, and thus easily suppressed by the government

* The luddites failed to recognize their real enemy. Perhaps the other reason why luddites movement failed was the fact that they had low level of consciousness. They mistook that the machines were their real enemy, instead of capitalists who exploited them. They had to fight for the government put good environments by enacting laws which would protect them instead of breaking machines

* Lack of strong unity among the luddites. The movement itself very short lived not only due to their small number, but also their lack of unity and coordination. Not all workers and artisans participated in the movement. Fearing the government hand, others never appeared to cooperate machine breakers

* The luddites lacked clear leadership. The luddites movement was conspiratorial thus it lacked clear organisation and leadership. It was said to be organized by one, Nedd Ludd, a mythical leader from Shirewood forest. No one ever saw him

 CHARTISM (1830s)

The failure of luddites did not signal the end of workers’ struggles for their betterment. In early 1830’s the group of people called chartists in London initiated another movement, seeking to reform the political structure of Britain. Early in 1839, the Chartists' petition comprising six demands was presented to the Parliament (House of Commons) with over one million signatures. Though the Petition was rejected by Parliament, a second petition signed by over three million people was presented to the Parliament in 1842, but again it was rejected. The last great burst of Chartism occurred in 1848. Another convention was summoned, and another petition was prepared. Again Parliament did nothing. Whenever the government rejected their charters, the unrests and demonstrations by the chartists occurred to pressurize the government accept their demands. However they were crushed by the authorities. The so called “People’s Charter” demanded the following changes to the British electoral system:

1. Universal manhood suffrage. They demanded that every an adult male person should be entitled to have his name registered a voter. all men to have the vote

2. Secret ballots. Initially the voting system was openly conducted by raising hands. This attracted corruption and intimidations. The demanded secret voting through ballots. 

3. Equal electoral constituencies. That the united kingdom be divided into equal electoral districts so that each member of parliament will represent roughly the same number of people

4. Annual election. They demanded election every year so that members of parliament could be responsible as they could be voted out if they did not keep their promises

5. Abolition of property qualification. Previously a person had to own immovable property to be franchised. They wanted it been abolished so that people who did not own land could become MPs

6. Payments for the members of parliament. They wanted members of parliament be receiving salaries so that poor men could afford to become members of parliament

Thus, Chartism was the British working-class movement based on People’s Charter, a bill drafted by the London radical William Lovett and presented to the parliament to be enacted a law. Unlike Luddism, Chartism was primarily a political movement at all. Nothing of its demands had prevailed the worker real problems. They contended that the poor workers condition and economic grievances of the people had political causes and therefore needed political solutions.They demanded the political structure that would give them representation to the parliament, so that the parliament would legislate in the interests of the majority of the population.

What caused Chartism?

 Workers were disappointed by the reform Act of 1832. The history of voting right in Britain is a bit controversial. Before 1832, only land owners in the rural areas were allowed to vote for members of parliament. In order to vote, or be voted one had to own the land. This meant the neither workers of the newly emerged industrial cities nor the owners of the industries were allowed to vote. In 1832 the bourgeoisie, with the great support of the workers forced the government to reform the voting system. They presented to the house of common what was known as the Reform Bill. Changes were made. The rural constituencies were disfranchised and new factory cities were given representation. Still the reforms had weaknesses. The votes were granted only to urban inhabitants paying a rent of not less than 10 pounds per annum, the majority of who were industrial owners. The workers who had played decisive part in the struggles for parliamentary reform reforms got nothing out of it. The workers therefore were disappointed by the act despite taking part in the campaign. Chartism was workers’ continuation to call for further reforms.

* The effects of the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1601) the government passed the poor law that intended to provide assistances to the poor people who could not provide themselves with the basic needs of life. With this law, the workers were given allowances and the unemployed poor people were given reliefs to earn their lives. The law that was celebrated by majority seemed to work in its early days. It became unhealthy during industrial revolution when witnessed the random development of the towns, rapid population growth with the rapid rise of unemployment rate. All this caused increasing poor ratesbeyond the ability of the country to feed them. Thus the 1834 amendment enormously reduced the public reliefs previously granted to the domestic workers and the poor generally. The Act treated poverty as a crime and aimed at cutting poor rates. The unemployed were compelled to find employment. This increased the hardship of the lives and hence workers movements

* Economic and social miseries resulted from industrial revolution. Workers were also provoked by the new conditions of nineteenth-century factory discipline, low wages, periodic unemployment and high prices for industrial commodities. As said previously, the capitalist intent is always to get wealth through exploiting the working class. They always paid their workers low wages despite having them working for long hours. They were psychologically in conflicts with the industrial owners. So Chartists sought a political solution to their economic and social problems

* Abolition of grand national trade union. English government had since early days opposed formation of trade unions. However, in 1824 and 1825 the laws were enacted repealing the 1799 Combination Acts, and subject to many restrictions, trade unions were again allowed. Many unions had been established then. The most famous of the general unions was, the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (GNCTU) founded by Robert Owen in 1833, aiming at uniting all workers in one vast union. In 1834, the government attempted to smash the union by arresting leaders and members. This angered workers and the movement broke out.

* The economic crisis of 1830s. . Perhaps capitalist economy often goes into crisis. European history in shaded with a series of economic slumps between 1830s-1870s. A number of industries and banks crashed in England. This led to unemployment and increase of food prices. It increased the hardship of people’s lives, hence provoked chartism.

Why did Chartism fail? 

 Economic prosperity of Victorian era. Many people supported Chartism in hard times but during what is known in the English history as the Victorian era when the economy improved and jobs returned, support faded and the movement declined.

* Chartists lacked blessings of the government. The government not only rejected their petitions but also arrested their leaders. Whenever Chartists demonstrations took place the government sent troops to suppress the movement.

* They lacked committed leaders. Some Chartist leaders like Fergus O’Connor were incompetent and not committed. Rather they were fighting for the political fame. For example, when O’Connor was elected the Member of Parliament in 1850’s he became silent.

* They lacked unity. Not all the workers participated in the movements. Many workers were scared of losing their jobs or being arrested so they ignored Chartist activities

* Differed ideologies among the chartists. Some chartist leaders like Peter Busey and John Frost preferred violence while Lovett preferred peaceful means. This weakened the movement

 NEW MODEL TRADE UNIONISM

Trade unions are organisations formed by workers from related fields that work for the common interest of its members. The trade union simply means labour organisation, formed for the purpose of looking into the grievances of its members and present them to their employers

Workers unions had long history in Britain. Workers in Britain began organising themselves into guilds systems since medieval times. However, the heyday of trade unions is during industrial revolution. The 18th century was the beginning of modern trade unions as they are understood today. Many trade unions emerged around this time. This alarmed English government. Urgent measures were taken to prevent collective action on the part of workers. The Combination Acts was passed in 1799 and 1800, making any sort of strike action and workers organisations illegal. The combination Act was repealed in 1824, and workers organisations were once again allowed but under strict restrictions. Robert Owen formulated the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in 1834, and membership was open to all workers, skilled and unskilled. It was shortly discouraged by the government.

Decline of Chartism opened the new page of workers movements based on trade unions. Many national-level trade unions were formed from 1850s. For instance, the Amalgamated Society of Engineers was formed by William Newton Allan in 1851. In 1861, Robert Applegarth formed the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners. These trade unions had some unique features which differentiate them from the earliest workers organisations. It is for this reason they are known as New Model Trade Unions.

Characteristics of New Model Trade Unions

 They comprised of professional and skilled members. To be a member in any of the trade unions formed around the second half of 19th century one needed to be professional and skilled worker

* They focused on the economic well-being of the workers. The interests of trade unions was hundred percent directed on betterments of workers, rather than political agitation

* Non-violence approaches. The new phase of trade unionism emphasized on the peaceful mechanisms rather than violence. They rejected strikes as the method of improving workers condition

* They had recognized union headquarter and leadership. Unlike luddism, new model trade unionism were formal movements with headquarters and recognized leaders