COLONIAL ECONOMY IN AFRICA

COLONIAL ECONOMY

Colonial economy refers to the production and consumption systems introduced by Europeans in African colonies. In other words, it simply means totality of economic activities which were introduced and dominated by colonialists. These included activities like agriculture, commerce, industries, and mining.

Because of rapid industrialization took place in Europe in the nineteenth century , European powers were in dire need of raw materials to feed their industries, and markets for selling their industrial commodities. This was undoubtedly the primary purpose of the Europeans’ conquest of Africa in the last quarter of 19th century. Therefore, after they had occupied African continent, the next step was to establish colonial economy. African which had previously been developing significant trade and economies of their own was placed into new systems of foreign economy that was structured to improve the economies of the colonizing or metropolitan powers. In the scheme of things, what mattered was how the colonial economy could benefit the colonizers, no matter how it would be detrimental to natives.

Before colonisation, the Africans had their own economy. People engaged in different activities like mining, hunting, fishing, agriculture, trading and manufacturing to obtain their basic needs. Besides, they built homes, made clothes and created art from the natural materials around them. With the arrival of colonialists, everything changed. The pre-colonial subsistent economy was replaced with colonial economy. New economic policies came into operation in which Africans with their resources became under whites’ dominations.

Characteristics of colonial economy

· It was export-import oriented economy. Colonial economy specialized in the production of raw material for the metropolitan industries and importation of manufactured goods to Africa. It was export-import oriented economy because what was produced in Africa was to be exported to Europe, and what was consumed in colonies was imported from Europe.

· Weak industrial sector. Colonial economy was not featured with consolidation of industrial sector, rather destruction of local industries. The few factories established were processing industries, and import substitution industries. This was because colonies had to remain in producers of raw materials.

· Most colonies were mono-cultural. They specialized in the production of one major commodity for example, Mauritius specialized in the production of sugar, Ghana produced cocoa and Tanganyika produced sisal.

· It was money economy. Unlike pre-colonial societies featured with the exchange of commodities for commodities, Europeans introduced in colonies monies to act as the medium of exchange.

· Colonial production was based on coercion. In every aspect of colonial economy, violence was used. For example in peasant economy Africans were forced to produce for export rather than for their own consumption. In settler economy, Africans were forced to provide their labour in whites’ farms.

· Colonial economy was dominated by Europeans. The role of Africans in colonial economy was provision of labour. Except in places where peasant agriculture was practiced, Africans were neither allowed to own land no to engage in production of raw materials. Africans were not allowed to own economy, so as to make them depend on providing their labour in whites’ farms for their survival. Commerce, mines, industries and land were all dominated by whites.

Techniques used to establish colonial economy in Africa.

As already illustrated that African continent had already achieved its developments even before the coming of whites. Colonialists found Africans engaging in various economic activities for their survival. Thus, in establishing their economy that was quite different from the pre-colonial one, measures were to be taken firstly to introduce some new systems which were necessary for the achievements of their goal, then destructing some pre-colonial systems which seemed to be harmful for their economy. Therefore, different ways were used which are put in three major techniques as follows:

 Creation. 

This was the technique used by Europeans to establish colonial economy, in which they introduced some new economic structures which formerly did not exist in traditional economic systems. Here, colonialists realized that Africa missed some things like money, and some crops, which were not only important but also necessary for the success of colonial economy. Thus, following were among the things introduced;

· The introduction of money economy. Pre-colonial Africa based on the exchange of commodities for commodities, system that was not suitable for the colonialists who had come to exploit African markets and cheap labour. Thus, money was made the medium of exchange to replace barter system.

· Introduction of land alienation. Upon their arrival in Africa, they found all the fertile areas occupied by natives. As they were in dire need of the area for cash crops cultivation, they initiated such a system where all fertile areas which previously belonged to Africans, were taken by the whites for large-scale agriculture. For example, Crown Land Ordinanceof 1915 in Kenya alienated Africans land, and gave settler 99 years lease. Again, Zimbabwe’s Land Apportionment Act of 1923 which demarcated separate areas for whites.

· Introduction of taxation. They introduced tax in form of cash where Africans were forced to pay tax to the colonial Government. Taxation was introduced firstly as source of revenue for running different activities by the colonial government, again as the mechanism to incorporate Africans in the capitalist system, like production of raw materials and provision of their labour in the whites’ farms. For example, Poll tax ordinance of 1922 in Tanganyika.

· Introduction of cash crops. Colonialists were in search of the areas where they could make the source of raw materials to feed European industries. They introduced cash crops like coffee, cotton, sisal and tea in African continent. The African economy was therefore converted from subsistent to cash economy.

Destruction.

The term ‘destruction’ implies the action or process of causing damage to something that it no longer exists or cannot be repaired. Destruction in so far as colonial economy is concerned, it was the technique applied during establishment of colonial economy whereby colonialists destroyed some pre-colonial systems or things which seemed to be harmful for their economy. Following were among the things or systems destroyed;

· They destroyed African local industries. As they found Africans engaging in iron smelting, cloth making, and many other manufacturing activities, they viewed this was harmful for their economies. They destroyed these traditional industries firstly to gain markets for manufactured goods from Europe, secondly togetlabourers.

· They destroyed pre-colonial trade. Africans had trade relations ever since. People from one society travelled to exchange commodities with the people of other community. Colonialists were not happy with this system of trade. They were on the view that if African were left to proceed with their activities, they could not get enough labourers in their economic sectors. Thus, destroyed pre-colonial trade and established new kinds of trade in which Africans were excluded.

· They destroyed subsistent economy. Colonialists found Africans engaging in agricultural production of food crops. They produced for consumption. They destroyed African subsistence so as to make them dependent, depend on provision of their labour in whites farms.

 Preservation.

Not all pre-colonial African systems were harmful for their economy. They preserved some pre-colonial systems to continue existing during colonial period. Thus, preservation was the technique used by the colonialists to establish colonial economy in which they maintained some pre-colonial systems which seem not to be harmful for their economy. Among the things preserved were;

· Local tools. Colonialists were not interested with development of African technology, thus preserved the local tools of production like hand hoes, axes, and pangas. As this could not ruin their economy, they continued to be the major instruments of production throughout the colonial period. The difference was that there tools were now imported from Europe.

· Family remained the source of labour unit. Before the coming of whites family had been the major unit of production. In those areas where colonialists introduced peasant agriculture, family remained to be the unit of production. People produced cash crops at the family level.

· Local institutions were preserved in some places. Traditional political institutions which existed in pre-colonial Africa were preserved and incorporated into the colonial administrative system for local governance. African chiefs were responsible to mobilise their fellow Africans on the production of raw materials and collection of taxes.

SECTORS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY

COLONIAL AGRICULTURE.

As already noted previously, Europeans’ colonization of African continent was driven by economic motives. Thus, agriculture was introduced by colonialist to produce cash crops which were to be exported to European to feed various industries. With many other economic activities, agriculture was the major economic activity that was practiced in almost every African colony. Colonial crop production was divided in three forms, namely;Peasant agriculture,Settler agriculture, and Plantation agriculture.

Peasant agriculture.

At the time Whites entered Africa towards the ends of 19th century, African farmers were engaging in farming activities in their small farms. Because of some reasons, in some of the areas Africans were left to continue with production of cash crop at small scale. Thus peasant agriculture was the type of colonial agriculture where African small farmers were allowed to grow cash crops in their small plots alongside with their subsistence crops using the family labor and crude technology. Here, peasants were not only encouraged but also forced to shift from subsistence farming to cash crop farming geared toward exports. The pre-colonial subsistence farming was replaced with cash crop farming which, quite naturally, benefitted the Europeans. This type of agriculture in which African peasants were the key role players, was more dominant in British West Africa. However, in east Africa, it was dominant in Uganda, and some parts of Tanganyika.

Characteristics of peasant agriculture.

· It was small scale agriculture. Under peasant agriculture, cash crops were produced by African peasants in their small farms. Thus, it was small scale agriculture as cash crop production covered small area.

· Individual ownership of the land. Since African peasants were the producers of the raw materials, they were allowed to own land. No land alienation took place in these places, and land was individually owned by Africans.

· Production was both for markets and food. In peasant colonial agriculture, production of cash crops was made something necessary by the colonial governments. Those who rejected to cultivate cash crops in their farms, were deprived their lands. Again, food crops production was necessary for their survival. Because of this, peasants’ plots mixed both cash crops to abide to the colonial agricultural policy and food crops for consumption.

· It took place in areas with dense population. In most cases, peasant agriculture was practiced in areas with dense population, where large scale agriculture was not possible. In areas with higher population, colonialists were forced to leave Africans with their land as it was hard to alienate them, but forced them to engage on cash crop rather than food crops production.

· It was non-scientific. No scientific procedures were involved under peasant agriculture. Unlike European settlers who always conducted scientific researches to determine the nature of soil and climatic condition prior to production, African peasants could not afford. They continued using local tools like hand hoes in production.

Reasons for peasant agriculture.

· The system was cheap to run. As the production was carried out by Africans in their small plots using local tools, they did not demand capitals like settlers. The cost of production was covered by the peasants themselves.

Large-scale agriculture always demanded huge capital for application of scientific procedures of production, paying labourers and others.

· It was due to natives resistances to whites. The reason why Uganda and most west African colonies practiced peasant agriculture, was African negative responses to the colonialists. For example, Buganda kingdom in Uganda proved to be tough on the establishment of settler agriculture. Kabaka was not ready to accept settlers who could occupy the natives’ land. Thus, the only solution by whites was to leaved Africans continue possessing their small plots and engaging on cash crop production.

· Climatic factor. Areas where this type of agriculture was practiced had tropical climate, which proved unfit for whites settlements. Due to tropical climate in some of the area, Europeans failed to enter on those areas. For example, northern Uganda had hot climate. As a result Africans were left to continue on production on small scale.

· Dense population was one of the reasons. Some of the areas had high population, for example West Africa, the situation which rendered it difficulty to practice large –scale agriculture, as it was not possible to alienate all of them from their land and resettle them in the land reserves. Thus these areas were left with peasant production.

· Nature of the crops. Some crops such as cocoa needed intensive care, thus only peasant agriculture was suitable as Africans were closer to their plots.

Mechanisms used to establish peasant agriculture

Remember Africans before establishment of colonial economy produced for their consumption. Colonialists had to take some measures to motivate and compel Africans to switch from food crop to cash crop production. Following were the techniques used;

· Introduction of taxation.

The imposition of taxes forced many peasants to produce cash crops. For countless farmers, making the shift to cash crop farming was the only option for them to earn money that, in turn, would allow them to pay the taxes. Hence, the imposition of taxes proved a very effective economic policy tool for the European colonial governments. The burden of taxes introduced forced peasants to alter their farming practices. Subsistence farming was replaced with cash crop farming which, quite naturally, benefitted the Europeans.

· Introduction of money economy

One of the very effective economic policies was introduction of money system. They made such a situation in the colonies, that money was everything. Here Africans forced to engage on cash crop production to earn money to run their lives. For example, money earned from selling cash crops allowed peasants to buy European imports.

· They forced Africans to cultivate cash crops.

To establish and consolidate peasant agriculture, colonialists made it necessary for African peasants to cultivate cash crops. For instance in Sukuma land (Tanganyika) each family was required to produce two (2) acres of cotton.

· Provision of education.

It would be unwise to claim cash crops in Africa, while Africans had no knowledge of cash crops production. Colonialists therefore, provided education to Africans on how to engage on cash crop production.

· They gave Africans agricultural subsidies.

Africans were provided with agricultural subsidies like seeds, seedlings and other implements. These encouraged them to engage on cash crop production.

Settlers agriculture

The settler economy involved production by the foreigners who had settled permanently in the colonies. It was the type of agriculture practiced in some colonies went hand in hand with the promotion of agricultural production was to go hand in hand with white settlements. This system involved the production of cash crop at larger scale. The settlers who were Europeans owned these large-scale farms and some of them were Asians. Settler agriculture was predominant in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Mozambique, Angola, and south Africa. In these colonies, a racially stratified economy was created, with European settlers controlling a large segment of the fertile land, while the African indigenous population only worked as laborers on cash-crop plantations.

Factors favoured settler agriculture

· Climatic factor. As already mentioned settler agriculture encourages whites’ settlements in colonies, automatically it requires such a climatic condition suitable for whites’ settlements. Thus, one of factors for settler agriculture was good climatic condition that favouredwhites’ settlements in colonies. For example, the White Highlands in the central uplands of Kenya, where whites were attracted because of the cool climate. Most of the land taken was in the highlands where there was suitable climate for settlement and farming.

· Availability of enough areas for large scale agriculture. It is clear that settler agriculture was large scale agriculture, thus needed the opening of larger farms in every corner of the colony. For this to be possible, such a place must have enough open areas so that land alienation can be operated.

· Fertile soil for cash crop production. Shortly, Europeans would have not lost their funds to invest in places which infertile soil, since their intention was to produce abundant raw materials to feed their industries. These areas where Europeans immigrants came to settle for cash crop production had fertile soils.

· Absence of strong native resistances. Centralized kingdoms proved to be tough on the establishment of whites’ settlements. Settler agriculture therefore was possible in areas where were no strong political organisations.

Characteristics of settler agriculture.

· Settler agriculture was large-scale agriculture. Unlike peasant agriculture that was conducted in small plots dominated and worked by African themselves, settler opened larger farms for cash crop production.

· The production based on cash crops only. Settlers had nothing to do with the food crops. They concentrated on the cash crops production for export, rather than production for consumption.

· It associated with scientific procedures of production. Although agriculture during colonial period remained technological backward, at least setter agriculture was relatively scientific than peasant. Since it was large scale agriculture, prior to production scientific research was conducted to determine the nature of the soil and climatic condition so as to know what crop can be supported by such situation.

· It needed large capital. Settlers here demanded huge capital for carrying out agriculture. Since it was large scale agriculture, it demanded enough capital to operate. It associated with the use of machines, fertilisers, and others.

· It was featured with land alienation. As agriculture was conducted by whites, Africans’ land was alienated in favour of settlers. For example, Crown Land Ordinance of 1915 in Kenya alienated Africans land, and gave settler 99 years lease. Again, Zimbabwe’s Land Apportionment Act of 1923 which demarcated separate areas for whites.

The role of colonial state in establishing and consolidating settler agriculture.

· Settlers were given capital by the colonial Government so as to open farms in Africa. As motivation, colonial government provided loans of low interest rates to the white immigrants in Africa. This was because they conducted large scale agriculture which demanded enough capital. Through this they encouraged settle agriculture as more and more settlers were interested to come and invest in the colonies.

· Provision of better social services to settlers. Colonial Governments build social services in those areas with settlers such as hospital, and schools so as to attract settlers in Africa. It would be impossible for settlers to come and settle in colonies without necessary services like education, and health care.

· Colonial governments prepared all fertile areas for whites. Colonial Government favoured settlers by the use of land ordinances (laws) which legitimized alienation of African land to white settlers. For example the 1919 Crown Lands Act helped settlers to be given land by the colonial Government in Kenya.

· Construction of infrastructures. Governments constructed the best reliable infrastructures for easy transportation of raw materials. The notable example of these is the Mombasa-Kisumu railway built in 1895, the Nairobi-Thika Line built in 1918 and many others. Infrastructures were necessary to make agricultural output easily transported from the production zones to the coasts so that they can be shipped to Europe.

· Colonial Government ensured constant supply of labour in settlers’ farms.

It is obvious that Africans were not happy with the whites exploitations and discriminations in working areas, thus they would not voluntarily provide their labour in whites farms. On the other side, in absence of labour force, settler farming would not succeed. Thus, colonial governments tended to force Africans to work on settlers’ farms through different measures like taxation, and prohibitingthem cultivating cash crops.

· Settlers were given monopoly of producing certain cash crops. Africans were restricted to grow the same type of cash crops being produced by settlers. This aimed at firstly, avoiding competition between settlers and natives, secondly to favour the settlers on market of their produce. For example in Kenya, Africans were restricted to grow coffee.

Plantation agriculture.

Plantation agriculture was the type of agriculture characterized with establishment of larger farms owned by foreigners most of whom remained in Europe, and employed farm managers to supervise their farms in Africa. Unlike settler agriculture in which European investors settled in colonies, under plantation agriculture whites remained in metropole and employed people to supervise production. For example, Rubber plantations in Congo were owned by Belgian investors most of whom remained in Europe. Plantation agriculture was also practiced in German Tanganyika.

Characteristics of plantation agriculture.· It was mono-cultural. European investors had nothing to do with the food crops. They concentrated on the cash crops production for export, rather than production for consumption. For example sisal plantations in Tanganyika, clove in Zanzibar.

· Plantation agriculture was large-scale agriculture. Like settler agriculture, plantation agriculture was large scale agriculture as there were opened large farms of over 100 acres.

· It associated with scientific procedures of production. Although agriculture during colonial period remained technological backward, this type of agriculture was relatively scientific than peasant. Plantations were scientifically managed and involved the use of machines and fertilisers as well as scientific researches before production.

· It needed large capital. Settlers here demanded huge capital for carrying out agriculture. Since it was large scale agriculture, associated with the use of machines, fertilisers, and others, demanded enough capital to operate.

· It preferred the use of migrant labour. Because of some reasons migrant labour were mostly preferred in both settlers’ farms and plantations. These were these people who shifted from one place to provide their labour in colonial sectors.

· Land alienation. Large amounts of land were needed for commercial agriculture, thus natives were squeezed from fertile to infertile areas.

Factors favoured plantation agriculture.

· Availability of enough areas for large scale agriculture. Like settler agriculture, plantation was also large scale agriculture, thus needed the opening of larger farms in every corner of the colony. For this to be possible, such a place must have enough open areas so that land alienation can be operated. Tanganyika for example had enough open areas for large scale agriculture.

· Availability of enough labour supply. Presence of enough laboursupply was among the factors favoured large scale agriculture. Places with shortage of labourcould not attract foreign investors.

· Tropical climate. Places with tropical climate did not attract white settlements. This is why Europeans under plantation agriculture opened farms in Africa, and they themselves settled in abroad, and employed farm managers to supervise production.

COLONIAL INDUSTRY.

Prior to this development, it is evidenced that pre-colonial Africa was advancing and progressing both economically and technologically. Several economic and technological activities were carried out in Africa even before the arrival of colonialists. Pre-colonial Africa had iron smelting industries, cloth making industries and many others. For example there was bulk cloth making industry in Buganda that used tree garments to make clothes.

Thus, to secure their economic interests, colonialists were forced to destroy African traditional industries. Duringcolonialism there was little development of industries, their emphasis was directed in agricultural production of raw materials to feed their industries in metropole. The policies of colonialism forced the demise of African industry and created a reliance on imported goods from Europe. This is what is historically called “colonial deindustrialization policy.” Had native industry been encouraged and cultivated by the colonizing powers, Africa would probably be in a much better economic and technological position today. However following types of industries were constructed;

Ø Processing industries. Are industries that are concerned with the processing of raw materials to reduce the bulkiness. For example there was TobaccoProcessing Industry in Malawi. Here the agricultural output were taken to these industries only to reduce the bulkiness, while finishing industries remained in abroad.

Ø Import-substitution industries. Post world wars were featured with the establishment of import-substitution industries, so as to produce food stuffs and luxurious goods to meet the immediate demands of the colonial bureaucracy. The goods produced by these industries included soaps, beverages,cigarettes, biscuits, margarines and others. They were called import-substitution because they replaced imports from Europe. Example of these industries was Dar es salaam Brewery Company established in 1924.

Ø Extraction industries. These were industries dealt with extraction of minerals from the earth. They were established in areas with minerals. For example, there was Williamson Diamond Mining Limited (1940) at Mwadui-Tanganyika.

Why Europeansdeindustrialised Africa.

· To exploit abundant raw materials. African colonies were to specialize in the production of raw materials to feed European industries. With such agenda, no significant industries were established in colonies.

· To exploit African cheap labour. Africans were to be taken as cheap labourers in whites’ farms, industries or mines. They realized that they could not employ Africans in their sectors if Africans themselves were busy with their economic activities. They wanted to make Africans depend on providing their labour in whites’ farms.

· To create dependency in African continent. A country with industries and agriculture is obviously economically independent. The colonialists wanted to make African continent depend on Europe. It from this point that they farms industries in Europe. This is to make Africans depend on selling their agriculturaloutputs to Europe.

· To get markets for manufactured goods from Europe. Colonization was the direct results of European industrialization. Europeans were in the dire need of area where they could sell manufactured goods from Europe. With this goal, Africa was to remain unindustrialized so as to consume what was imported from Europe.

How did the colonialists deindustrialise Africa.

· Massive importation of manufactured goods in Africa. One of the reasons why Europeans are blamed for underdevelopment of African continent was through mass importation of manufactured goods in Africa. Their goods were of higher quality than Africans, thus replaced commodities from traditional industries, and thus marked the collapse of local industries.

· They passed laws which restricted Africans to engage in manufacturing activities. For example in Belgium Congo there was passed such a law that African engaged in manufacturing activities, his hands were to be cut off. This was direct measure taken to destroy industries in African continent.

· Africans were recruited labourers in colonial sectors. Most of the Africans who were potential for industrialization were taken in forced labour. In most cases were taken to distant areas where they could no longer engage on manufacturing activities, but only providing their labour in whites farms. Recruitment of Africans as labourers stagnated technology, especially In labour reserve zones.

· Colonialists turned Africa the source of raw materials. What was produced in Africa during colonial period was to be taken to Europe for European industries. By making Africa the source of raw materials, putting no consideration in the development of traditional industries, Africa became deindustrialised.

COLONIAL COMMERCE

It has already said above that pre-colonial Africa was not static, were progressing in every aspect of life. Trade implies exchange of something for money or something else, typically as a commercial transaction. Among the economic activities existed in pre-colonial Africa was trade. Africa had been the continent of trade ever since, from the time of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt, and west Africa specifically had developed extensive international trading systems during the eras of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires. There were both local trade that was conducted among the people within the same community and regional trade in which people shifted from one region to another.

When Europeans arrived in Africa found Africans engaging among themselves in the exchange of commodities for commodities. For some reasons, they perceived that trade existed in pre-colonial was not suitable for them, thus destroyed pre-colonial trade and established another type of trade in which Africans had no chance. This is what is meant by colonial commerce.

Characteristics of colonial commerce

· Money was the medium of exchange. Unlike pre-colonial trade that was featured with the exchange of commodities for commodities, colonial commerce had money as the medium of exchange.

· It was import-export oriented trade. The trade was featured with the exportation of raw materials from Africa to Europe, and importation of manufactured goods in Africa.

· It was featured with exclusion of Africans. Commercial activities in the colonial were managed and controlled by merchants capital middlemen and marketing boards. Internal trade was conducted by Indians and Arabs who were the whole and retail sellers.

· Existence of big commercial companies. Companies like Royal Niger Company, International Association Du Congo. These engaged on international trade.

COLONIAL TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

The first task of the colonialists was the opening up of the African continent. The Europeans had realized that if any substantial exploitation of African resources was to be done successfully, the first priority was to set up modern transport systems.[1]To support their economic interests in Africa, colonialists constructed a sophisticated transport and communications infrastructure.

These included railway lines, ports, roads and telephone lines. This development was necessary for quick movement of heavy machinery to both mining centres and farms and output from mines and farms to the coasts for shipment to the metropole.Shortly, colonial exploitation of both raw materials, human labour and markets would not be possible in absence of transport and communication systems. Thus there was a mushrooming of railway network everywhere in Africa. In Kenya for example, they built the Mombasa-Kisumu line to Uganda in 1904. In Uganda, the built Jinja to Masangali line in 1902. In Tanganyika they built a line from Dar Es Salaam to Tabora, and then to Mwanza during German and British rule respectively.

Characteristics of colonial transport & communication infrastructure

· Railways and roads were coast-interior oriented.

The setting up of the rails and roads started from the coast to the interior. This is because they obvious had nothing to do with the needs of local and regional trade, but intended to facilitate the exportof raw materials from interior where production was carried out to coasts, and the transportation of European manufactures from the coasts to the interior after being imported from Europe.

· They denied inter-colonial infrastructures.

There were no efforts to build inter-territorial infrastructures except where two or more colonies belonged to one colonial master. For example Kenya and Uganda shared the railway because both were under the British Empire.

· Roads and Railways were built in areas with economic importance.

It should be known that the colonialists did not construct infrastructures to serve Africans, but for their economic interests. This being the case, roads and railways were constructed in production areas only. Areas with no any production, suffered from the lack of transport infrastructures.

Roles of colonial transport and communication

· It was useful for carrying raw materials from the interior to the coast, so as to be shipped to Europe. Production of raw materials was always conducted in the hinterland. As Africa was not yet infrastructure, a construction of rails and roads was necessary to facilitate transportation of raw materials from the production arenas to coast where they could be shipped to Europe.

· To transport imported manufactured goods to the interior Africa. One of such economic motives for Europeans’ colonization of Africa was to exploit African markets for industrial commodities from abroad. Thus, the imported raw materials needed at the end of the day to be taken to the interior. Therefore, roads and rails were constructed from the coasts to the interior.

· Roads and railways were useful for carrying administrators and military troops from one area to another. Infrastructures were necessary for carrying firstly colonial troupsto the interior areas for suppressing African resistances and maintain peace, secondly colonial administrators for various administrative purposes.

· They were also useful for carrying labourers to those areas with colonial economic activities. It was the tendency of colonialists that they preferred using in their production activities labourers who travelled from distant areas. Thus, rails were used for transportingmigrant labourers. For example, the central railway system in Tanganyika was used for transporting labourers from Kigoma, Rukwa, and Dodoma to Morogoro and Tanga plantations.

· Transportation of missionaries who were going for evangelization. The work colonial exploitation also went together with the works of missionaries who used to prepare Africans for exploitation. Therefore roads and rails were used to transport these religious people to the interior areas.

· To facilitate communication between the production areas and colonial headquarters. Both roads and telephone lines were used as the way to facilitate communication between colonial head quarters and where production was conducted.

COLONIAL LABOUR FORCE

The colonial economy depended upon African labour in both construction of infrastructures and various production areas. With the establishment of settlers’ farms, plantations and mines, the colonial government had to ensure that labour had to be created to work in those sectors. Thus, it should be understood that there was substantial group of Africans employed in colonial economic sectors. This is what is meant by colonial labour force.Labourers during colonial period had the following conditions;

· They were underpaid

· Most of them were unskilled or semi-skilled

· They were poorly accommodated and poorly fed

· They were victims of racial discrimination

· They were forced labour

· They were victims of cruelty and harshness

Therefore, Africans would have not voluntarily provided enough labour in colonial sectors. This is because they were harshly treated in working areas and underpaid. Colonial government had to take measures to ensure constant supply of labour in their sectors. Following were the techniques used to compel Africans provide their labour in whites’ sectors.

(i) Imposition of taxes. Colonial government imposed a burden of taxes to the Africans like hut tax and a poll tax. Taxation forced Africans to provide their labour in white farms as the only alternative to earn money for paying taxes. 

(ii) Through Land alienation. In places where colonialists practiced settler or plantation agriculture, they practiced land alienation. As Africans lacked sufficient land for agricultural undertaking, they had little choice but to migrate to the European farms in search of work. For example, in Kenya and Zimbabwe where Africans were removed from fertile areas as a result they started to work to earn money for their living.

(iii) Introduction of money system. On the arrival of colonialistsin Africa, barter trade was used as the main medium of exchange.Colonialists realized that their economic goals would not succeed in absence of money, thus money system was put into operation. For example the currency onTanganyika was the German Rupee, till 1923, when the East Africa shilling was firmly established as official currency in Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika.As money was made the medium of exchange the whole system of life changed, thus Africans were forced to provide their labour in the whites’ farms to earn money to run their lives.

(iv) Africans were paid low wages. To substantially continue exploiting Africans, colonialists realized that Africans were to be paid low wages so that they could not economically become independent. This was to make Africans’act of providing their labour in white farms continuous.

(v) Through enactment of laws. The colonial government passed laws to ensure that cheap African labour continued to be available for the white farms: for example the 1918 Resident Native Labourers Ordinance (RNLO) required that a squatter must work at least 180 days annually on the white farm in return for living on and farming a portion of the land for his personal use. Not only would the Kikuyu male work for the white commercial farmer, his wife and children too had to be available to work at harvest time when labour demand was highest. There was kipande system in which Kenyans were forced to carry a personal identification booklet, the kipande, showing their place of occupation and other details. This was deliberate measure taken to recruit enough labourers in their farms.

(vi) Establishment of labour recruitment organizations. Colonial Governments registered special organizations with the aim of finding labourers from different areas and taking them to production zones. For example SILABU (Sisal Labour Bureau) was established in 1944 in Tanganyika. Again W.N.L.A. (Witwatersrand Native labour Association) in South Africa. All of these were the organizations established for recruiting labourers from different regions, so as t ensure availability of enough labour in their production regions.

(vii) Importation of luxurious commodities from Europe. Europeans imported manufactured goods in Africa such as clothes, beverages and bicycles that were sold on cash basis. Hence Africans were required to work so as to buy those things. Through this they maintained constant supply of labour in their sectors.

(viii) Forbidding Africans from producing cash crops. To make Africans not competing with British farmers, and making them depend on working ob whites sectors to run their lives, the government forbade Africans to grow the most profitable cash crops (coffee, tea, and sisal). For example in Kenya, it was not actually illegal for Kenyans to grow coffee, but coffee growers needed a license and it was very difficult for Kenyans to obtain a license. This was the mechanism to make Kenyans seek for employments in whites’ farms.

Labour migration

It was the tendency of colonialists to use migrant labourers in their plantations, settlers’ farms and mines. Whenever they established cash crop farms in a certain area, they preferred recruiting labourers from distant areas rather than residents. This system is called labour migration,[2] while those Africans who shifted from one place to another to provide their labour in the colonial sectors were referred to as migrant laborers. Colonialists established special zones (labour reserve zones) which acted as the source of labour. For example in colonial Tanganyika, kigoma, Dodoma and Rukwa acted as the labour reserve zones fromwhich labourers were taken to Morogoro and Tanga sisal plantations.

Why did the colonialists prefer the use of migrant labourers in their production activities?

(i) Migrant labour was cheap. Migrant labour left his family at home, and because were taken to distant areas, the connection with their families obviously declined. The low wages they were paid was enough something which made the colonialists get profits through exploiting them to the maximum.

(ii) To avoid resistances.Colonialists were aware that Africans were not happy with their exploitations and discriminations in working areas, thus could at any time resist them. Since migrant labourers came from different places with different historical background, mentality and cultures, they could not resist.

(iii) Migrant labourers were the source of marketsfor manufactured goods from Europe.Colonialists used migrant labourers as the source for selling imported industrial commodities in Africa. Remember the migrant labourers came from distant areas, withthus part of the low wages were used for buying manufactured goods imported from Europe.

(iv) They were source of colonial revenue.It was easy to collect tax from the migrant labourers. As they had no family responsibilities, the paid low wages were again deducted by their employers as taxes.

(v) Migrant labourers could not easily escape from the working areas. As they came from distant areas, migrant labourers could not go back to their homes. Through this they maintained constant supply of labour in production areas.

Effects of labour migration.

· It led to separation of families. This was because under colonial labour migration the members of family were taken to different places, thus families separated.

· It caused famine in labour reserve zones. In those places where labourers were taken from production declined as all energetic people who could engage in production were taken production areas.

· Labour migration led to intermarriage between migrant labourers and the natives.