HISTORY TWO QUESTION AND ANSWERS (ADVANCE LEVEL)

1. Explain how European mercantile policy helped to undermine development of African continent

2. Many factors contributed to make Germany a balkanized state for centuries. Analyse them

3. What do you understand by ‘English Glorious Revolution’? analyse four causes and four effects of the event

4. The question why slave trade was abolished is one of the complex issues which have involved many historians. Some historians have stressed on the humanitarian reasons while others on economic ones. Discuss

5. Show why the big powers arms competition gained momentum in the second half of 20th century

6. Though perished after the Second World War, the scars fascist ideology had left in Europe and entire world are unforgettable. Discuss

7. Critically discuss the reasons why USSR was not affected by the 1929’s global economic crisis

8. The disintegration of the USSR came about from a number of factors, but much of the credit for this dramatic unraveling of the status quo can be ascribed to the actions and efforts of one individual: Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev. Show the veracity or otherwise of this statement.

9. Despite the fact that the continent is rich in human and natural resources, Africa is the least developed in the world, and perhaps it will remain so forever. With vivid examples discuss;

a) Major factors for underdevelopment of African continent

OR

b) Measures to be taken to promote African development.

Explain how European mercantile policy helped to undermine development of African continent

Mercantilism was an economic doctrine underlying European trade policy that existed between the 16th-18th centuries. The term ‘Mercantilism’ was firstly coned by Adam Smith to describe the system of political economy that sought to enrich the country by state intervention in the economy, especially international trade. In this period a group of people known as merchants from the port cities of Genoa, Venice and many other European nations started to travel overseas in search of precious metals to build their nations. The government played vital role to protect its merchants’ overseas journeys, and keep others out by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports and minimize imports. Therefore, the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. It was shortly an economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and powerful state. Economic development in Europe and underdevelopment in African continent were two sides of the same coin, resulting from European mercantile policy. White mercantile policy greatly supported development of European societies, it had negative effects to African societies. In other words, it helped to undermine development of African continent. This was due to the following;

Removal of manpower from Africa. Triangular trade grew out of Mercantilism economic policy of European nations. From the seventeenth century on, slaves became the main trading commodity between Europe and Africa. Substantial number of Africans were shipped to provide their slave labour in America and Caribbean islands. A huge migration of human beings take place took place in Africa, led to underdevelopment of the continent.

Exploitation of African resources through unequal exchange. During the whole period of mercantilism, Africans lost their natural and human resources. European merchants exchanged their valueless commodities with valuable commodities like gold, copper and silver from Africa. While this helped development of Europe, it undermined African prosperity.

Mercantilism killed African local industries. This was due to mass importation of readymade goods from Europe. Africa was during mercantilism a market for industrial commodities from Europe. Commodities from African traditional industries could not compete with European imported goods, thus collapse of traditional industries.

Decline of African local trades. Merchants’ journeys around the coasts of West Africa opened up new avenues for trade between Europe and West Africa. For example, the Portuguese diverted trans-Saharan trade to trans-Atlantic. Slaves, gold and many other commodities which were previously traded with the people of north Africa were now traded with Europeans.

Many factors contributed to make Germany a balkanized state for centuries. Analyse them

German Unification refers to the amalgamation of various autonomous Germanic states to form one unified Germany. The modern German was officially established in 1870’s. Before this period, the German-speaking people lived in a number of small and medium-sized states independent to each other. Strong nationalistic desire unified the Germans, and attempts were taken to combine their states. Eventually, the German Empire was created in 1871 under leadership of Otto Von Bismarck and Frederick William. The completion of the process of German Unification was not an easy task. Though the idea of unification existed for long, it lately achieved in the end of 19th century. Efforts by nationalists and liberals to unite the nation passed through very hard times, oppositions from almost every big European nation. To make the long story short, many factors contributed to make Germany decentralized for years. Among others were;

Strong opposition from other European nations. For centuries, other European powers had been content to see Germany fractured into smaller polities. Many nations were alarmed by German nationalism. France for example, which had some influence among southern German States, was not ready to witness one unified state of Germany. On the other side, Austria opposed the idea of German unification as it saw this as a threat to its own empire. Any serious attempts to create a unified Germanstate encountered opposition from these big nations of Europe.

Power struggles among Germans themselves. The rulers of the smaller German States opposed attempts at greater unity as it would mean the loss of their powers. Considerable rivalry and jealously existed among them. With individual interests to preserve their political positions, any German rulers were reluctant to the idea of unification. This was also a problem towards unification process.

Reformation movements. One obstacle in German unification was religious conflicts. Catholic versus protestant German states had once shared the catholic religion but this changed after the reformation. Germany became divided between Catholics and protestants. North-South religious differences disunited Germans. The Southern Catholics under the support of Austria were not ready to unite with the Northerners Protestants led by Prussia.

Lack of clear leadership. All the unification pioneers before Bismarck came into power, lacked both the will and the power to make the process effective. It was not until Bismarck was appointed the chancellor of Prussia in 1860’s that the deliberate attempts for unification were taken.

Geographical difficulties. Germanic states lacked natural frontiers, the situation which marked the process of unification a difficult task. Consequently, some Germanic states were left outside the unified Germany, while non-Germanic provinces were incorporated into Germany. 

What do you understand by ‘English Glorious Revolution’? analyse four causes and four effects of the event

The Glorious Revolution of England was a blood-less coup took place in 1688 which led to the overthrow of absolute rule of King James II and established a constitutional monarchy in England in which parliament had basic sovereignty over the king. England had for long being dominated by absolute Stuart rulers. Annoyed by reign of the Catholic James II, the English parliament sent an Invitation to the protestant William III of Orange to take the throne of the country, along with his wife Mary who was the daughter of James II. James II fled the country leaving his in-law William and daughter Mary Stuart the new king and queen of England. The Glorious Revolution was so-called because it achieved its objective without any bloodshed. They waged a revolution which completely changed the political system of England from the Absolute Monarchy of the Stuarts to Constitutional Monarchy and the rule of Parliament. Under this the power of the monarch who was absolute ruler was limited. It is limited by law, limited by a Parliament; and limited, ultimately, by the people. Government depends on the consent of the people. Shortly, the English glorious revolution was provoked by the following internal situations. 

Religious controversy between Catholicism and Protestantism. Perhaps James's greatest problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties in England. James was a Roman catholic and he treated his fellow religious believers most sympathetically by appointing them to high positions in the state and the army, and removed non-Catholics from holding government offices. Initially the parliament thought these problems would go away when James died because his daughter, Mary, who was next in line to the throne, was a Protestant. However, in 1688 James had a son. This sparked fears in the parliament that the son would now be next in line and that he might grow up to be a Catholic like his father. This religious rivalry between the Catholic James and the Protestant parliament was very responsible to the occurrence of the revolution.

King’s absolutism. Prior to the revolution like other European nations, England was under the absolute monarchy. An 'Absolute Monarchy' meant the king had the power to do anything without any constraint by law or parliament. The rulers claimed that they derived their authority directly from God and thus not accountable to anyone but themselves, their conscience, and their God. They therefore ruled as they wished and no one could challenge their rule. While the Parliament was asking for its rights and privileges, the kings were treating themselves as absolute despots. This quarrel came to a head in the Glorious Revolution.

King’s extravagance. The other reason for the revolution was that the kings were very extravagant with money. Stuarts have always been viewed as extravagant kings, who gave no thought to finance, if king wanted something, he had it regardless of cost. They were always in demand of money to build luxurious palaces and live luxurious lives with their families, and sometimes demanded money to wage unnecessary wars with other nations. When Parliament refused to grant him a special fund to pay for his extravagances, kings placed new customs duties (increased taxes) on merchants without Parliament’s consent. All of these were counted as extravagant acts which disqualified them, and thus their replacement.

Changing the social and economic structure of England. As the time went on, merchants were becoming withier than the old feudal nobility, thus demanded greater voice in the affairs of government. They pressed their cause through their representatives in the house of common. It was in the course of this power struggles between nobility and middle class, that the 1688 revolutions took place.

The English Glorious revolution was unforgettable event in the history of English people. Bill of Rights was then passed follong the revolution. These entirely changed political and social oreder in English cocieties. Among others, the revolution resulted to following.

Reduction of the power of monarch. One significant change from the revolution is that shift of power from monarch to parliament. The parliament had gained powers over taxation, royal succession, over appointments and the right of the crown to wage war independently

England became constitutional monarchy. One effect of English glorious revolution it ended king’s absolutism and establishment of limited monarchy. Bill of Rights became one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain, never again would the monarch pretend to hold absolute power.

The rise of middle class. The revolution was to large extent engineered by the emerging middle class that wanted more say in government. The merchants and industrialist were economically powerful lacked political authority. The revolution made middle class both economically and politically powerful.

The revolution laid the foundation for the rights and liberties of the subjects. The fight for rights and freedoms throughout the 19th and 20th centuries in Western Europe had a historical antecedent in the signing of the Bill of Rights in England in 1689, which the English elite imposed on the new King and Queen of England, William III of Orange and his wife Mary, after the ousting of King James II.

The question why slave trade was abolished is one of the complex issues which have involved many historians. Some historians have stressed on the humanitarian reasons while others on economic ones. Discuss

Abolition of slave trade was a deliberate process of stopping slave trade in African continent. The process was campaigned by Britain. Slave trade had for long existed in Africa. Majority of European powers including the Dutch, the Spanish, French, Portuguese and the English were the main slave dealers. Britain had by time emerged as the predominant slave trading power in the New World.

This drastically changed by the beginning of the nineteenth century, when both England started strong campaigns against the trade. The factors behind the abolition of the slave trade continue to be debated by scholars today. Some scholars accredit the rise and success of abolition to growing moral or humanitarian efforts within Europe, Britain in particular, while other scholars consider the economic factors. It is now agreeable that abolition emerged due to a combination of all of these factors. This means both humanitarian and economic grounds are accountable:

Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition. On one hand, the new invented machines came to replace human labour, thus slaves became useless. On the other hand, the Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.

The American independence. The Americans won their independence from British in 1776. Apart from being source of pride, colonies were very important as a source of raw materials, particularly agricultural materials like tobacco, sisal and cotton. British therefore lost sources of raw materials, markets and area for investments of surplus capital. The abolition of slave trade was necessary to turn Africa the new area of influence.

Sugar competition between British and French. The economic rivalry between France and Britain is undoubtedly among the factors pushed British to end slave trade. For a long time Britain was monopolizing sugar market in Europe. As the time went on, sugar from the West Indian plantations now faced competition from cheaper sugar flowing into the world market produced by French. The British desire to protect their market, wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European powers which solely depended on slave labour.

An influence of the French revolution of 1789. The revolution emphasized on liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of these essentials of life. Thus abolition of slave trade was in some ways a movements to spread the beautiful ideas brought by French revolution.

Evangelical reason. Abolition of slave trade was certainly also an outcome of religious movements. Religious revival in Europe preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity.

The role of individual humanitarianists and philosophers. Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliament), Granville sharp, and Fowell Buxton cannot be underestimated. They pressurized the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. On the other side, scholars like Adam Smith through his writings criticized slave labour, arguing that a free man can provide his best than a slave.

Show why the big powers arms competition gained momentum in the second half of 20th century

The term "arms race" generally refers to the stiff competitions between states for military superiority. A series of incidents in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, led European army building nations competitions. Every European nations competed to build a strong army to defeat the other. The first modern arms race took place when France and Russia challenged the naval superiority of Britain in the late nineteenth century. Germans started to build their armies to defeat France and Britain. It was in the course of these competitions that First World War erupted in 1910’s. Though this competition for military superiority date to the nineteenth century, it was not until the twentieth century that they gained momentum. Motivated by a number of factors, the big powers of the world, divided between West capitalists and East socialists, turned into competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare. USA was the first to discover an atomic bomb in a secret project called The Manhattan Project in 1945. An event shocked the world. In 1949, USSR successfully tested its first atomic bomb. In 1952, USA detonated the first Hydrogen bomb (the more powerful version of nuclear bomb) the nuclear arms race began. In addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons. Following factors were why arms race gained momentum in this period after the Second World War.

Cold war tension. The Cold War was a period of competition, tension, and conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union that began after World War Two. During World War Two, the United States and the Soviet Union were allies, fighting together against the Axis powers. Not surprising, their relationship turned hostile after the Second World War. The Cold War dominated international affairs for decades and the space race and the arms race developed because of this competition. Although no actual fighting took place, nuclear race and Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition.

Expansionism policy of the big powers. The definition of expansionism is a political and military policy of taking over additional territory through the violation of another country's sovereignty. The reasons for this can be, defence, economic motives or national pride. Both the United States and Soviet Union participated in expansionism. However, the United states of America worked to contain communist expansionism. The containment strategy also provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States.

Advancement in science and technology. The period after the Second World War witnessed advancement in science and technology. This affected every aspect of human life. Intensive research and development work by laboratories enabled the big powers design of nuclear weapons, the most advanced and dangerous weapons in the world history. Thus development of new technologies of warfare triggered nuclear arms race

Middle East crisis. No doubt the escalating military conflicts in the Middle East had triggered a new arms race by the big powers in the period after the Second World War. Two of the world’s largest arms suppliers, the United States and Soviet Union got involved in the conflict.

Though perished after the Second World War, the scars fascist ideology had left in Europe and entire world are unforgettable. Discuss

Fascism is the dictatorial ideology developed in Europe after the First World War. In the decades after the end of the world war one, many European countries experienced periods of new governments. They were government ruled by dictators. It is obvious that fascist ideology arose out of the trauma of WWI.These men rose to power essentially because their countries had in some way been made unhappy by the outcome of that war. The social miseries and economic distress resulted from the war and great depression created a perfect climate for the rise of these dictators. It all started with Benito Mussolini who rose into power in 1922, followed by Adolf Hitler in 1933. Many other European nations turned dictatorial regimes.

However, the western powers failed tolerating Hitler’s expansion and other aggressive policies, thus invaded Germany in 1939, what brought the Second World War between democrats (Britain, France, and USA) and dictators (Japan, Italy and Germany). This initiated World War II (1939-1945) can be said to have ended the era of dictatorship in the world. While Mussolini was captured in 1943 and executed in 1945 with his wife, Hitler committed suicide, while Japanese military officers were assassinated. Though ended after the Second World War, the effects fascist ideology had left in the world were unforgettable.

Death of millions of people. Many people lost their lives as an outcome of fascism in post-world war one Europe. It for example argued that, ot 9 milions Jews living in Europe, 6 millions were killed in concentration camps as Hitler ordered. All of those who were opponent to him were to leave the country, and find somewhere to live, otherwise were subject to death.

Outbreak of the second world war. No doubt that the second world war was for western allies the war against dictatorial regimes. World War Two began in September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on Germany following Germany's invasion of Poland. Hitler was undoubtedly once again responsible for instigating the second world war. Obviously the second world war was the battle between Democrats (Britain, France and USA) against Dictatorial powers (Germany, Italy, Japan).

Spread of fascist ideology around the world. Fascist movements initiated by Mussolini and Hitler spread throughout the world. Supported by Mussolini and Hitler, many countries around the world turned dictatorial. Falangism in Spain, Rexism in Belgium, Peronism in Argentina, the Arrow Cross in Hungary, the Iron Guard in Romani

Loss of democracy for more than twenty years. When Benito Mussolini and Hitler ascended into power, all democratic elements disappeared in their countries. To make their governments run smoothly, they banned all opposition parties, abolished election, restricted the freedom of expression, and many other elements of democracy.

Suppression of communism in Europe. Fascism is always anti-communism. The Nazis arrested and silenced any citizens who disagreed with their policies, and the communists were the special target. The three countries, Italy, Germany and Japan signed Anti-comintern Pact, to react against the communist policy. Large number of communists were arrested and sentenced to prison. It is estimated that 340,000 communists were imprisoned within six months of the Nazi regime. Thus communism totally disappeared in Germany with the rise of Adolf.

Critically discuss the reasons why USSR was not affected by the 1929’s global economic crisis

The term “depression” simply means economic crisis. The Great Depression was the serious fall of the capitalist economy, started in the United States of America in 1929 and spread to other parts of the world. Though the capitalist economy had gone into depression several times in their history, the 1929-1933 depression was the longest and most severe depression ever experienced by the industrialized nations, fetured with serious unemployment and bad living condition of majority. The depression started in the United States, soon after the stock market crash of October 1929. Over the next several years, international trade and investment dropped, causing steep declines in industrial output. 

The number of indusries and companies in America became bunkrupt causing the rising levels of unemployment as failing companies laid off workers. By 1933, nearly half of the country’s banks had failed. From United States of America, the disaster spread to Europe. Closure of banks, decline of production and widespread unemploymentand eventually increase of the hardship of life were very common in Europe. As africa was by that time European colonies, they also became victims of this catastrophe. Demand for African agricultural and mineral exports fell drastically. Asian and other parts were also affected. Thus, it was a global phenomenon, unlike previous economic downturns which generally were confined to a handful of nations or specific regions, the depression started in the United Staes of America and affected other parts of the world whose economy affiliated with the USA. Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia, all suffered from the economic collapse. However, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic was not affected by the depression. This was due to following obvious reasons;

Collective ownership of resources. The means of production like lands, mines, factories, trade and the entire system of finance are collectively owned for the benefit of all and not the property of private individuals as the case in capitalism. This is undoubtedly the central feature of socialist society. With this economic system, there is always assurance of equal distribution of resources, and absence of improper competition in production

The Soviet Union had a state planed economy. In addition to collective ownership of key economic sectors, the system in socialist countries is that government controls and regulates production, distribution, and prices. The economic decisions regarding the allocation of resources to various ends, the goods to be produced and the methods of production do not operate freely under the influence of market forces, but works under the control of the central planning authority.

USSR had no close economic affiliation with the capitalist world. Being a socialist country, the USSR had at the time minimal trade contact with the rest of the world. The depression as said previously, hit like the capitalist countries whose economies were closely interlinked affected. The Soviets had no close economic ties with the west, thus could not be directly affected.

Internal economic programs launched by the communist government after revolution, saved the country from depression. While many at the time prophesied the imminent economic collapse in post revolution Russia, the new government embarked on deliberately mechanisms to promote economic development. For example, the 1928 first five-year plans had an extraordinary effect in USSR. a number of industries were constructed, and agriculture was mechanized, the consequences of which employment increased, and standard of living grew. This saved the country from 1929 downturn.

The disintegration of the USSR came about from a number of factors, but much of the credit for this dramatic unraveling of the status quo can be ascribed to the actions and efforts of one individual: Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev. Show the veracity or otherwise of this statement.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a confederation of fifteen republics with Russia as the leader. Governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the state Union was established in 1922 under strong leadership of one, Vladimir Lenin. Since its inception the Soviet Union had continuous economic growth, and had after the Second World War emerged one of a military, economic and political superpower, a leader of the entire socialist bloc. Socially, politically, and economically it sported several successes, as a result of both its socialist system, and the objective resources, being the largest and most diverse state in the world. No doubt that, the USSR and USA were after the Second World War the most giant powers controlled global politics. 

The strongest socialist state that had very great influence in the world’s politics for nearly 70 years, started to crumble in the mid 1980’s, following the failure of the national economy. By 1985, Soviet Union was just a shadow of former Soviet Union. Its economy was declining, and its citizens were chafing under their relatively poor standard of living and lack of freedom. It was in this climate that Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed head of the Soviet Communist Party. Recognizing the economic crisis that was taking place, Gorbachev introduced the twin policies known as glasnost and perestroika. Mikhail Gorbachev’s intention with the reforms he introduced after his accession to power was just an attempt to rejuvenate and revitalize the communist system, though later came to be recognized as the last nail to the Communist coffin.

Perestroika means restructuring. This Gorbachev’s policy aimed at restructuring of Soviet political and economic systems. It for instance allowed more freedoms in the market, including some free market economy mechanisms, foreign investments, and private enterprises.

Glasnost means 'openness' or 'publicity.' It was a program aimed at promoting openness and transparency in government dealings. It demanded government actions to be more open, more transparent for the Soviet people to observe. Practically, this meant ending strict government censorship of media, and granting many freedoms to the citizens. To a convincing extent, these policies contributed to the fall of communism and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Perestroika and glasnost had unintended results.

Firstly, the policies increased nationalist movements. Rise of nationalism among countries like Russia, Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia etc is the most important and immediate cause of disintegration of the USSR. Nationalist sentiment and the fight for independence in the Soviet Union before its collapse in 1991 was an effect of Gorbachev’s Glasnost that allowed freedom and citizens’ criticisms.

Secondly, Gorbachev’s policies allowed citizens criticism on government, something which led to anti-communist movements within USSR. His policies demanded government actions to be more open, more transparent. This intended to end strict government censorship of media, and granting many freedoms to the citizens. This much freedom, led to anti-communism movements.

Thirdly, the policies allowed foreign investments. The most significant of Gorbachev's reforms in the foreign economic sector allowed foreigners to invest in the Soviet Union in the form of joint ventures with Soviet ministries.

Fourthly, Gorbachev attempts to improve relationship with the west led to the collapse of USSR. A part of Gorbachev’s plan to improve economy was to end the long lived confrontation with the west. Gorbachev saw USA leader as rational and not interested in destroying the Soviet Union. His approach demanded to end the political and economic rivalry between the Soviets and the United States and their respective allies that emerged following World War II