SOUTHERN AFRICAN HISTORY

THE ARRIVAL WHITES AT THE CAPE.

The first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope were Portuguese, when in search of the sea route to India.Portugal and other European nations already had long-established trade ties to Asia, but their overland route had been closed due to the Ottoman Empire’s conquest of the Eastern Roman empire (Byzantine Empire). They therefore financed the voyages by several explorers like Bartholomew Dias and Vasco Da Gama to search the new sea route to India. It was in the course of these expeditions that the Portuguese became the first to sail the cape in the end 15thcentury.

However, permanent white settlement did not begin until 1652, when the powerful Dutch East India Company underJan Van Riebeeck built a fort and established a supply station on a site that later became Cape Town. Note that, initially, they did not come as settlers. They came only to set up a refueling station for their ships traveling to and from the east (India). More settlers then were landed from time to time. The Dutch settlement at the cape was due to a couple of reasons. Among them were;

· To establish trading station for their ships heading to and from India. The journey from Europe through the Cape to the East Indies was very long and tiresome, thus the sailing ships need secure ports where they can take on water and fresh meat and vegetables. The Cape was located mid way between Europe and Asia.

· The Dutch also established a settlement at the Cape for strategic reasons. The Cape was a place where most ships sailing around Africa had to pass. The control of such a place could enable the Dutch to have control over the trade.

· The climatic condition of the cape attracted whites’ settlements. The Cape Town’s climatic condition favored whites’ settlements.

· To conduct agriculture. The Dutch were also good farmers. The cape had fertile soils favorable for the growing of fruits, vegetables and for European settlement.

During the 18th century Dutch economic and political power began to wane. Just as the Dutch had superseded the Portuguese they were themselves challenged by the arrival of British. British occupied the strategically vital port of Cape Town from 1795 with the allegations of protecting it from falling into the hands of French-Napoleon. However, after 1803 Peace Settlement, the colony was returned to the Dutch. The British were only really interested in the Cape as a staging post and strategic port to protect trade with their new Asian empire, thus in 1806 the British reconquered the territory. Initially British control was aimed to protect the trade route to the East, however, the British soon realised the potential to develop the Cape for their own needs. As a result of the British occupation of the Cape, a large number of English speaking settlers arrived in the Cape, bringing with them their language, religion and other cultural expressions. By 1820’s, nearly whole of the cape was dominated by British settlers.

v BOERS GREAT TREK.

A trek simply means a movement of people from one place to another in large groups. Boer Trek was therefore the movement of the Boers from the Cape of Good Hope to other interior parts of South Africa in order to find new settlement areas. The historical background of the Boers movement can be traced back with the arrival of British towards the end of 18th century, who established their administration at the cape colony. With presence of British, everything at the cape changed into negative to Boers. They were disappointed by everything British had introduced at the cape. For example, Bores were now treated of equal status with the Africans. In response to these complaints a number of Dutch settlers decided that they would set out with their families and servants in search of new land beyond the British colonial boundaries. Boers decided to migrate into the interior where they established their states independent from the British rule. The migration took place from 1830s to 1840s where the Boers moved in groups of families at different times to different parts of interior South Africa, in a movement that later became known as the Boers Great Trek. 

Causes of Boers Trek

Historically, there were several reasons that led to the movement of the Boer from the Cape of Good Hope to other interior parts of South Africa. Some of those factors were as follows:

ü Introduction of British government. British established their settlements at the Cape of Good Hope early in 19 century. Here, both Boers and natives were under British domination. The Boer did not want to be under the British government, that’s why they decided to move out from the Cape of Good Hope, to interior where they could establish their independent states.

ü Abolition of slavery and slave trade. The other fundamental change that British rule brought about was the ending of the slave trade and then the total banning of slavery. The British abolished slavery and slave trade in 1833 which was established by the Boers. Nevertheless, many of the original Dutch settlers were extremely unhappy about the emancipation of slaves.

ü Introduction of English language as an official language. The coming of the British led to introduction of English language as an official language in 1822 that was to be spoken by all people at the cape. This made the Boers to become discontent hence Boer Trek.

ü Shortage of land at the cape. The coming of the British at the cape led to increase of population. The Cape of Good Hope became overpopulated. This led to shortage of land hence Boers decided to move to interior in search of the new land for agricultural undertakings.

EFFECTS OF BOERS TREK

There were several impacts (effects) of the movement of the Boer from the Cape of Good Hope to other interior parts of South Africa. Some of those impacts were as follows:

ü Establishment of Boer Republics. The movement of the Boer from the cape to interior led to the establishment of two Boer Republics which were Transvaal Republic and Orange Free State.

ü Occurrence of Afro-Boer Wars. The movement of the Boers to the interior led to conflicts between the Boers and Africans. This was due to the fact that Boers confiscated natives’ lands. A good example of those conflicts was the Zulu war with the Boers in 1837.

ü Boers-Trek accelerated mfecane movements on the interior Southern Africa. This is due to the fact that their penetration increased shortage of land in the hinterland.

ü The Boers had in the interim developed their own culture and language in the interior areas where they settled.

ü Discovery of Minerals. The Boer Trek also led to discovery of minerals in the interior parts of South Africa. The minerals discovered in the interior were: Diamond discovered at Kimberley in 1867 Gold discovered at Witwatersrand in 1880’s.

MINERALS REVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA (1867-1880’s)

Mineral revolution refers to the rapid industrialization and economic changes which occurred in South Africa from the second half of 19 century as impacts of discovery of minerals. According to the oxford dictionary (2000) define mineral revolution as the major economic advance of the late nineteenth century after discovery of first diamonds and then gold which transformed the southern African societies in all aspects of life. Generally, referred to as the period of economic growth and prosperity

Before the second half of 19th century, a country called South Africa did not exist. There were many scattered communities in an area called Southern Africa. Some of these communities were independent they were not controlled by other people. Others were controlled by colonists either the British, or the Boers, who were descendants of the Dutch. Frankly speaking, the life in Southern Africa changed greatly because of the discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold (1886). Before this great discoveries Southern Africa was common place with little developments. 

· had few towns with few people

· was technologically backward

· was agriculturally backward

· there were no heavy industries

· there was very small foreign investment

· there was no a unified state

HOW DISCOVERY OF MINERALS TRANSFORMED SOUTHERN AFRICA?

Industrialization of South Africa. South Africa now became the new target of European investors. The subsequent discovery of minerals led to the transformation from what was largely agricultural economy in South Africa to the present day urban-industrial economy. Investors from every corner of Europe were interested to invest in industrial sector, thus different industries like food processing, iron and steel industries emerged.

Agricultural expansion. Food was needed to feed industrial workers and miners. Agriculture expanded to feed the industrial workers who were increasing in numbers in mining areas and it was capped with new approach of farming and technology. Moreover, to meet with the new demands, new methods were adopted in the agricultural sector.

Accelerated foreign investments in South Africa. Emergence of large mining companies, for the De Beer Consolidated Mines Ltd under Cecil Rhodes in 1880s. Such companies were to extract minerals.

Construction of infrastructures. South Africa was now connected with mushrooming roads and railways. These were to facilitate the transportation of both raw materials, and manufactured goods as lager machines from one place to another. Much of the early transportation system connected these centers of extraction in the interior with the ports of Durban, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town.

It reconstructed the economy of South Africa. Agricultural and pastoral economy was transformed into industrial and commercial economy. South Africa is now no longer an agricultural state like the rest of Africa, but an industrial nation.

Population growth due to immigration. People from nearby places like Mozambique and Zimbabwe emigrated to South Africa to be employed in mines. The number of people doubled rapidly compared to the time before these discoveries.

Growth of modern towns. For example Transvaal was changed from being agricultural and pastoral to highly industrialized society. Kimberley was transformed into important mining and commercial centre with large population. Other towns like Johannesburg also grew.

Negative effects of the discovery of minerals.

It created enmity between the British and Boers. Boers had lost their land and interest to the British

It increased land alienation by the whites. The whites alienated more land for mining and agriculture.

Mining activities had some environmental impacts, such as deforestation when people clear land to allow process of mining.

It influenced the British ambition to govern the hinterland parts.

MFECANE MOVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The word ‘Mfecane’ originated from zulu word which means ‘crushing’. Mfecane was the period of wide spreading warfare, plundering, disturbances, destruction and migrations among the southern African tribes dominated the first half of nineteenth century. This was the period of serious upheaval among the Bantu-speaking groups in southern Africa, the period when emerging small chiefdoms were waging expansionism wars among themselves. This was in the high area which lies between the Drakensberg mountains, Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river. By the late eighteenth century, and early nineteenth century, the Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, and Ngwane were emerging as powerful kingdoms south of the Highveld. The powerful chiefdoms with chiefs ambitious to expand their possessions began the conquest and assimilation of neighboring groups. The all turmoils commenced around 1810’s when Zwide of Ndwande and Sobhuza of Ngwane fought over land along the Pongola River and Sobhuza was defeated after which he led his people further inland to the area that is known as Swaziland today. After defeating Sobhuza, Zwide came into conflict with Dingiswayo of Mthethwa over other resources like land and water. Both kingdoms became more centralized and militarized. The Zulu were still a small group among the Mthethwa by this time. The Ndwandwe appeared victorious again in 1818 and Dingiswayo was killed and his forces scattered. Shaka who was previously a warrior in the Dingiswayo’s army, had already ascended the chief of the Zulu under full support of Dinggiswayo upon the death of Senzangakona his father in 1816. As the Mthethwa nation fell apart after Dingiswayo's death Shaka who became ambitious to create new strong kingdom, used the opportunity to defeat all the chiefdoms in the area. Zwide realised that Shaka could become a threat and decided to stop him, thus became the Shaka’s great enemy, but was defeated in 1818 by the Zulu’s superior strategy and disciplined army. In 1926, under Zwide’s successor Sikhunyani , they challenged the Zulu forces again and were completely destroyed. Nguni speaking people, the Ndebele and many other tribes not ready to be rulled by Shaka emigrated. Thus Zulu became very vast strong kingdom in southern Africa. This period between 1810’s-1850’s is what is known as the period of Mfecane.

Causes of Mfecane.

The mfecane was caused by a number of inter-related factors including environmental and societal changes, strong political ambitions as well as severe conflict and fear among the people of southern Africa.

· Population explosion. The causes of the mfecane were emerging by the end of the eighteenth century, when population levels increased rapidly in the areas around Drakensberg Mountains. Due to fertile soil and plenty of rainfall, there was the increase of population size. Again the introduction of corn by the Portuguese in was another reason for this trend. Corn produced more food than indigenous grasses on the same land, and thus could sustain a larger population. Thus the Chiefdoms competed for well watered land and to grow crops and graze their livestock in fertile lands to feed the increasing number of people.

· Shortage of land. Do doubt mfecane emerged from the great rivalries among Nguni speaking societies over land possessions. This was due to population increase which caused by fertile soil for crop production and high quality pasture. People had no places to move to because all fertile grounds were occupied, thus groups started fighting amongst themselves to acquire land. In order to get land, people started to fight for it. The defeated ones had to migrate to other places

· The control of trade at delagoa bay. Trade in ivory with the Portuguese in Delagoa Bay was another factor provoked conflicts aong them. Because of the desire to control trade some Nguni tribes began toattack others in order to control and acquire more tribute. This motivated people to move to the area south of Mozambique where leaders could control this. In the struggles to control trade they found themselves in great rivalries.

· Shaka’s expansionism policy. Shaka was regarded as being the major cause of conflict during this period. Shaka was an illegitimate son of Senzangakana the chief of the Zulu clan born in 1787. He was helped by Dingiswayo to become chief of the Zulu upon the death of Senzangakana in 1816. Among the Zulu, Shaka remembered to have consolidated a number of military innovations which enabled expansion of Zulu nation. He was always interested to make Zulu vast kingdom in southern Africa by defeating other tribes. During most of the 1820s, Shaka consolidated his power through a series of wars against neighboring peoples. Thus his coming into power increased the rate of the mfecane.

· Expansion of cape whites. It is also argued that the wars and migrations among the nguni speaking people were the result of the expansion of cape European into interior southern Africa. Given the fertile nature of the interior southern Africa, there was the great desire by whites at the capes to expand in the interior in order to acquire more land. So the expansion of whites in cape worsened the shortage of land and thus crushes among the tribes in the interior.

EFFECTS OF MFACANE

· The Mfecane led to the loss of thousands of lives. As it was the warfare and crushes among the people, many chiefs and common people lost their lives in the course of fighting.

· It caused depopulation in many communities. Thousands more were uprooted from their homes and were forced to travel great distances. Example of these were Ngoni and Ndebele.

· Destruction of properties. Refugees moving in larger groups fleeing Shaka’s army caused destruction in many areas they passed through.

· Emergence of any new kingdoms. Many migrating tribes went to establish strong states where they settled. Forexample Zulu empire emerged as a very strong political entity with very wide range expansion base.

· It also led to decline of many central and east african kingdom. Those kingdom which could not stand against the military strength of the tribes from the south declined. Example of those kingdoms that were destroyed partly due to Nguni invasions were the Lozi, Rozwi andTumbu.

· It led to the more European penetration into the interior. As many areas became depopulated, made it very easy for the Dutch famers (Boers) to easily take over the place when they were looking for new lands to establish homes. Great numbers of people were displaced and frightened communities left their own areas in places like the Orange Free State, Natal and the Transvaal occupied by whites.

· Famine and hunger. Although the mfecane in many ways promoted the political development of southern Africa, it also caused great suffering. Thousands died because of famine.

MFACANE AND THE STATE FORMATION

Undoubtedly, of the remarkable effects of mfecane movements was emergence of strong political organization. As a result of the mfecane crushes, a series of states formed throughout southern, central and eastern Africa. Thus in the following senses, the mfecane war brought political changes in south, central and East Africa;

· The movements created a sense of unity and identity among people of different tribes. Many people in southern Africa banded together to protect themselves from Zulu worriers. Gaza Empire established by Seshangane in the southern Mozambique, The Ndebele state founded by Mzilikiazi in the Zimbabwean region and many others. In the same sense, Hehe organized themselves very strongly to resist Ngoni invasion.

· Mfecane led to the emergence of very strong leaders. The movement was very vital in the creation of very important African Historic figures in that region. Shaka of Zulu, Mzilikazi of Ndebele and Zwangendabba of Ngoni, all emerged from mfecane movements. Shaka happened to be the greatest among them and is seen now as a very great African historic figure.

· Mfecane led to military organization of many communities. Shaka was an exceptional military leader and organised his armies with military precision. Short stabbing spear, cowhorn fighting method and others were very significant. All the men younger than forty were divided into regiments, based on their age. Most of leader adopted Shaka’s military method and conquered the new areas establishing new states. This was undoubtedly the factor for states formation.

· The migrations also resulted in the development of bigger and more centralised kingdoms. The actions of Shaka led to the force migrations of some tribes searching for new settlements. Most of them had adopted Shaka’s military method and conquered the new areas thereby establishing new states. Examples were the Ndebele who move and formed their state under Mzilikiazi in the Zimbabwean region, the Ngoni under Zwangendaba who established their Kingdom in eastern Africa, the Gaza Empire established by Seshangane in the southern Mozambique, Swaziland under Sobhuza, the Basuto State created by Moshoshoe and many others.

NGONI MIGRATIONS.

The Ngoni were part of the Bantu-speaking groups in South Africa, who moved from their original homeland northwards. Their move was caused by Shaka’s expansionist wars, which came to be known as the Mfecane. The first half of nineteenth century was dominated by the political chaos among the southern African societies. The ascendancy of Shaka to power in Zulu nation was the source of everything. Shaka’s ambition was to conquer all neighbouring states and incorporate them into Zulu. This caused conflicts among the southern African tribes which were divided into several kingdoms and chiefdoms. The weaker ones were conquered while others forced to migrate to distant areas where they established their independent states. It was in this period when Ngoni struck northwards from the present Natal province-Southern Africa. The Ngoni left under two major groups and under different leadership taking different directions. Chief Zwangendaba led the first and largest group. They crossed the Zambezi in 1835 and finally reached Ufipa in 1840. In about 1845 Zwagendaba finally died and his group split into several groups, some of which moved back into Central Africa, occupying the present day Malawi and Zambia while the others remained in East Africa. The small second group called the Maseko Ngoni was led by chief Maputo. It struck North wards through present Mozambique and Malawi. Finally they entered East Africa in about 1840 after destroying the Yao settlement, they settled at Songea in present Tanzania. Their move was therefore due to fear of being absorbed into the empire of tyrant Shaka. The Ngoni invasions were a dreadful disaster for the peoples of East Africa, causing social, political and economic effects as follow.

ü Ngoni migration accelerated state formation in East Africa. The invasion gave rise to the formation of bigger political units for defensive purposes. Some societies re-organised themselves after the Ngoni invasion, forming strong armies reforms to strengthen their societies so as to resist their ivasion. For example Hehe and the Segu. On the other hand, their movement led to the rise of ambitious men like Mirambo who copied their tactics and created their empires.

ü The Ngoni migration led to displacement of some tribes from their original homeland. That means the natives of the areas where Ngonii settled like the Yao were forced to settle in unfavourable areas.

ü The Ngoni invasion intensified slave trade in East Africa. Firstly, they themselves engaged in capturing people and selling as slaves. Again, people running away from the Ngoni invaders were once captured by Arab slave traders and sold off as slaves. The invasion therefore accelerated slave trade

ü Introduction of new culture. However there was spread of Ngoni customs and culture. They enriched the cultures of the people of Southern Tanzania, for example people copied Ngoni traditional dances and annual festivities. It shortly led to loss of peoples language, culture and customs.

ü They destroyed the economy of the people of east Africa. In this case the long distance trade and even agriculture was disrupted. For example, Since people were running away from the invaders, they disrupted the normal farming, leading to famine. Then they grabbed the natives’ cattle. Furthermore the caravan routes from Bagamoyo to Ujiji and through Tabora were insecure.

ü There was destruction of property and villages. Ngoni were moving in large groups destroying crops and other properties wherever they crossed. Villages which tried to resist were in most cases burnt down. 

ü There were intermarriages between the Ngoni and the natives.

APARTHEID POLICY IN SOUTH AFRICA

What is apartheid Policy?

Apartheid was an institutionalized system of racial segregation enforced by the National Party government in South Africa from 1948 to 1990s. The term apartheid comes from the Afrikaans word meaning “separateness”, thus the poliicy sought to “ensure the survival of the white race” and to keep the different races separate on every level of society and in every facet of life. One difference between South Africa’s apartheid era and other periods of racial segregation that have occurred in other countries is the systematic way in which the National Party formalized it through law. Thousands of black South Africans were killed, tortured or left maimed by the South African police forces.

Racial segregation and white supremacy had become central aspects of South African policy long before apartheid began. Racial segregation, sanctioned by law, was widely practiced in South Africa before 1948, but the National Party, which gained office that year, extended the policy and gave it the name apartheid. South Africa formally achieved its independence from Britain on May 31, 1910, when General Louis Botha formed a government as prime minister. Even after British rule ended, the government of independent South Africa was run by Boers, the descendants of the British colonizers. Since then, the government of South Africa was made by the minority whites, and majority African were segregated and alienated in all aspects of life. However, it was not until 1948, when racial segregative policy was officially declared.

In 1948, the National Party (NP), representing Afrikaners, won the national election and Malan became Prime Minister. Upon taking power during the 1948 general election, the National Party began to implement a policy of apartheid – the legal system of political and social separation of the races – a policy intended to maintain and extend political and economic control of South Africa by the white minority.

HOW WAS IT IMPLEMENTED?

Soon afterwards the new government under Daniel Francois Malan instituted a number of policies in the name of apartheid which sought to “ensure the survival of the white race” and to keep the different races separate on every level of society and in every facet of life. Their only task was implementing the policy they promised. Apartheid was implemented by the law. Its implementation although grossly violated human rights in numerous ways, and on different levels, restrictions were not only social but also strictly enforced by law. Following is good example of its implementations;

ü The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages between and sexual intercourse whites and non-whites. First and foremost the apartheid government as part of its overall policy of separateness, prohibited marriage between whites and non-whites in South Africa. The 1949-Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, prohibited inter marriages. The following year new legislation banned sexual intercourse between Europeans and non-Europeans.

ü Separation of settlements between blacks and whites. Under the Group Areas Act (1950) the cities and towns of South Africa were divided into segregated residential and business areas. Thousands of Coloureds, blacks, and Indians were removed from areas classified for white occupation. Here, the blacks were excluded from living or working in white areas, unless they had a pass. A pass was issued only to a black person with approved work. Spouses and children had to be left behind in non-white areas.

ü Non-whites were not allowed to run businesses or professional practices in those areas designated as 'white South Africa' without permit. All economically significant towns and commercial areas were dominated by the whites. Blacks were supposed to move to the black "homelands" and set up businesses and practices there.

ü Africans were denied the right to get quality education.

Blacks in South Africa were segregated even in educational matters. Bantu Education Act of 1953, aimed to prevent Africans receiving an education that would lead them to aspire to positions they wouldn’t be allowed to hold in society. Instead Africans were to receive an education designed to provide them with skills to serve their own people in the homelands or to work in labouring jobs under whites.

ü Segregation in public amenities.

Blacks and white people were forced to use separate public facilities, such as parks, beaches, buses and toilets. Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, Act No 49 of 1953, Forced segregation in all public amenities, public buildings, and public transport with the aim of eliminating contact between whites and other races. “Europeans Only” and “Non-Europeans Only” signs were put up. The act stated that facilities provided for different races need not be equal.

ANTI-APARTHEID MOVEMENTS

As already discussed above, the independence granted by British in 1910 was minority whites-based, and blacks continued to be under the chains of whites domination. White South Africans lived privileged lives while the black majority was discriminated against in virtually all areas of life. This motivated the rise of intern anti-apartheid movements.

The history of black South Africans movements against white-based government can be traced from the early African reactions against the occupation of South African land by the Boers and British. For instance Xhosa waged a series of wars against whites expansionism from the very beginning of Boers domination.

The struggles against whites rule proceeded even after the minority independence was granted in 1910. In 1912, when the Boer, Herzog formed the Nationalist Party to defend the domination of the whites over Africans, Dr. Pixley Kaisaka Seme from the Zulu created a political organization, namely; South African Native National Congress (SANNC). The organisation developed out of a situation of racial exclusion and discrimination under the new Union of South Africa. SANNC aspired to unite Africans in the advancement of their political and socio-economic status. Although the South African Native National Congress (SANNC ) was formed in 1912, it did not play a significant role in South African political life until 1930s, when it was transformed into African National Congress (ANC) which then became the popular party in the struggle for African rule. From then onward, the ANC used a variety of strategies to resist the imposition of apartheid in South Africa.

What were the measures taken by the people of South Africa to fight apartheid?

Resistance to apartheid within South Africa took many forms over the years, from non-violent demonstrations, protests and strikes to political action and eventually to armed resistance.

ü Through peaceful negotiations. Soon in 1950’s south Africans sought to negotiate a peaceful transition from the apartheid regime to a democracy that would be acceptable to blacks and whites alike. Many thought the task was hopeless. The anti-apartheid leaders like Mandela used to negotiate the leaders presiding over Apartheid in South Africa about initiating such a government democratic. 

ü Through armed struggles. Following the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, the ANC leadership concluded that the methods of non-violence applied by the South Africans to struggle for their independence was not suitable against the Apartheid system. A military wing was formed in 1961, called Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning "Spear of the Nation", with Mandela as its first leader. Its operations during the 1960s primarily involved targeting and sabotaging government facilities.

ü Formation of political organisations. Political parties always acted as the umbrella during struggles for majority’s rights. Here there were African National Congress (ANC) formed since 1912, Pan-African Congress formed in 1959. With many other, the African National Congress was the dominate one, that drove the country to Majority rule. Although the party was formed long time, it was not until 1940’s the youth wing of the took control of the organisation and started advocating a radical black nationalist programme.

ü They sought an assistances from the international organisations. On their struggles against the brutal racist government, south Africans sought an assistances from the world peace loving bodies like United Nations Organisation, OAU and Common wealth. For example in 1962, two years since 69 people were killed at Sharpeville, the UN general Assembly passed political and economic sanctions against the apartheid regime. It is because of their assistances that Nelson Mandele said “We stand here today to salute the United Nations Organisation and its Member States, both singly and collectively, for joining forces with the masses of our people in a common struggle that has brought about our emancipation and pushed back the frontiers of racism” when addressing the United Nations as South African President, 3 October 1994.

ü They sought an assistances from other neighboring states. In the struggle against apartheid regime, the ANC was supported by a number of African states which hosted ANC leaders fleeing from increasing repression by the Apartheid state. Independent African states like Zimbabwe, Tanganyika and many others provided political, diplomatic, and military support to the ANC in its armed struggle. South African leaders were allowed to stay as refuges and establish military training camps in these countries. From these countries they could operate and co-ordinate the liberation struggle abroad and in South Africa.

ü Through other non-violent actions like boycotts, all of which were classified as forms of. In 1988, the government banned all political activities by the UDF and COSATU, along with dozens of other anti-apartheid group, a series of strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience actions that led to occasional violent clashes with the authorities.

The international actions against south African apartheid regime.

The brutal policy of apartheid was applied before the eyes of the nations of the world. Unfortunately apartheid was introduced in South Africa in a post-World War II political climate that was very against racial discrimination. When the world increasingly moved away from ideas of racial superiority after the horrors of WWII, South Africa Boers government introduced a more institutionalised form of racism. South Africa was starting to face some international criticism over apartheid.

ü The policy was strongly criticized by the big powers in the world. In 1960 the worldwide view changed as a result of the Sharpeville Incident. As from this point many Western countries no longer held the view that apartheid fell within internal affairs and they began to openly criticise South Africa. They called upon the government to introduce measures to bring about racial harmony. The big powers economic ties with South Africa till existed.

ü Extension of economic sanctions to South African Boers government. The international community had begun to take notice of the brutality of the Apartheid regime after white South African police opened fire on unarmed black protesters in the town of Sharpeville in 1960, killing 69 people and wounding many others. The United Nations led the call for sanctions against the South African Government. In response to the outrages of apartheid, many countries adopted trade and financial sanctions and a significant amount of foreign investment was withdrawn from South Africa. After the adoption of sanctions, South Africa experienced economic difficulty and numerous domestic actors commented on how the economic situation was untenable and required political change.

ü South Africa was excluded from the commonwealth. The commonwealth members led the campaign to have South Africa excluded from membership. South Africa was forced to withdraw from the Commonwealth in 1961 when it became apparent that other member countries would not accept its racial policies. South Africa withdrew from the commonwealth after an anti-apartheid campaign led by Canada’s then-Prime minister John Diefenbaker, who said the apartheid policy of racial separation was wrong by commonwealth standards.

ü The United Nations made apartheid policy an agenda in its General Assemblies. Racial discrimination in South Africa was on the agenda of the United Nations since 1946 – and apartheid since 1952, although it had been difficult for many years, because of the resistance of Western Powers. On 22 June 1946 the Indian government requested that the discriminatory treatment of Indians in the Union of South Africa be included on the agenda of the very first session of the General Assembly. In its several assemblies since then, the policy was made an agenda.

THE END OF APARTHEID POLICY.

The apartheid system began to fall apart in the 1980s. The long lived black resistance, and an economy suffering from international sanctions finally convinced South African government that something had to change. F.W. De Klerk was elected in 1989 and promised to seek a compromise between the majority and the minority. Finally in 1990, De Klerk unbanned the ANC and released Nelson Mandela from prison. In 1994 the first free multiracial elections were held. The ANC received the most votes and Nelson Mandela was elected President of South Africa. Apartheid was over.