THE THREAT TO THE WORLD PEACE

Peace is a state of mutual harmony between people, groups or states. It is opposite to disharmony or chaos. Threats to the world peace refer to major incidences ever happened in world history, which threatened peace. These include among others; Armsrace, Cuba missiles crisis, fascism, cold war, Zionism etc. These events had created tension in the world. For the purpose of this topic, the scope of discussion will be restricted on;

COLD WAR, ARMSRACE ,ZIONISM  AND COLD WAR

The Cold War was the period of conflict and competition between the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union, and their respective allies. In other words, Cold War is the term used to describe the post-second world war hostile relation between the capitalist versus socialist blocs led by USA and USSR, featured with stiff arms competitions and tense rivalry that lasted for much of the second half of the 20th century. What differentiated the Cold War from other 20th century conflicts was that the two enemies did not engage in a shooting war. Instead, they pursued their rivalry by using the strategies shown below.

How did the cold war start and develop?

The United States-Soviet union difference was without doubt the consequence of the Russian Communist Revolution of 1917. After the revolution had occurred, the political instabilities continued within the boundaries of Russia. Forces loyal to the Tsar (white army) and all who were anti-communist gathered strength to fight the new established government under V. I. Lenin. The United States and capitalist nations of Europe which were alarmed with the communists triumph in Russia quickly financed and armed the white army in their struggles against Lenin’s government. However the red army was able to defeat the much larger white armies over the course of the three years conflict. Strong communist Russian government became the big rival of all capitalist powers. The United States had refused recognition to the Russia soon after the communist takeover. Certainly their differences started here.

Although had ideological conflicts, the Second World War brought the United States and Soviet Union into alliance. Adolf Hitler’s aggression against the USSR forced the USSR into an ally with the Western democracies, based on the common aim of defeating NAZI Germany. Hitler was defeated and the war ended in 1945. While many European nations were left exhausted and ruined upon the end of the war, there witnessed emergence of two new global superpowers. On one side, the USA emerged the leading capitalist superpower, on the other side the USSR. USSR came out of the war territorially enlarged and with great prestige having successfully fought Hitler’s Germany. The Soviets occupied the Eastern European countries of Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and the eastern part of Germany. The two giant powers with great influence split the world into two antagonistic sides; the capitalist bloc versus socialist bloc. This alarmed the western powers who really feared communist expansionism.

In March 1946, Winston Churchill, a British minister delivered a speech in the United States, suspecting Soviets expansionism in Eastern Europe. He said, “An iron curtain has descended across the continent that separated Europe between the democratic and capitalist West from the totalitarian and communist East.” This was undoubtedly the official beginning of the cold war.

What caused the cold war?

o Ideological differences. Historians do agree that ideological differences between the countries of the 'East' and those of the 'West', was the root cause of the cold war. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its satellites states were communists while the United States of America (USA) with her western allies was capitalists. Communism was a political ideology and economic policy originated from the writings of Karl Marx I the 19th century, which emphasized on the government ownership of key economic sectors and equal distribution of resources. On the other side, the United States was capitalist which meant that the private individuals could own land and businesses and compete for themselves. Their ideological differences and incompatibility made conflict unavoidable.

o America’s refusal to share nuclear secrets. Despite their wartime military alliance, the US discovery of an atomic bomb was at the surprise of the Soviets. The United States secretly discovered an atomic bomb in 1945, and refused to share it with her allies. Perhaps the United States had not trusted the Soviets enough to keep knowledge of the Manhattan Project safe from Axis powers. Stalin suspected that the U.S. used the atomic bombs to intimidate the Soviet Union after the war. This alarmed the Union Soviet, and made her suspect the US secret mission against communism

o Communist expansionism. Communist ideology clearly stated Communism would inevitably take over the entire world eventually, by force if necessary. In the years immediately following World War II, the USSR efforts were on spreading her ideology. She provided aid to help many countries to establish Soviet-style communist governments, which became known as the Eastern Bloc. In1945 for instance, Albania and Bulgaria both became communist. Romania, Poland and Hungary all fell to communist rule in 1947 and Czechoslovakia in 1948. This was negatively taken by the westerners who thought that the Soviet Union was trying to dominate Europe and later the world. This scared the West, who believed that the Soviet was trying to take over the world by force.

o US Policy of containment of communism. The capitalist nations, US in particular were becoming increasingly alarmed by the spread of communism in post-war Europe. She used her financial position to contain the spread of communism in Europe. The new US President, Harry S. Truman, explained that America could no longer stand back and allow communism to spread any further - it had to be contained in the countries that were already communist and that this was now America's duty. In early 1947 for instance, a Greek communist minority was fighting a guerilla war against Greece’s government. The United States, with the belief that the Soviets was behind the Greek communists quickly took the role of defending the country in order to block possible Soviet control. This marked the beginning of the cold war.

Manifestations of the cold war

o Division of Germany between East and West. Germany was blamed severely punished in the Paris Peace settlement to have instigated the First World War. Germany was again responsible for the Second World War. Having experienced great losses as a result of German invasions in the First then Second World Wars, allied powers were on the view that a defeated Germany be occupied by the winners so that it could not rise to its former strength to threaten European peace and security again. They initially divided Germany into four sections, with each Allied power taking responsibility for one section, though later the, 1948, Britain, France and America united their zones into a new country, West Germany, forming the Federal Republic. Thus Germany remained two countries, East Germany under USSR and West Germany under USA, Britain and France. This was undoubtedly one of the earliest indicators of the Cold War. 

o Berlin blockade and Berlin Airlift. Certainly you are aware that after World War II, the Allies partitioned the defeated Germany into two zones; the socialists-occupied East Germany, and the capitalist occupied West Germany. Berlin, the German capital, was located deep in East Germany, the Soviet zone, but it was also divided between the Soviet-east and the US-west. The Soviet Union was worried by the capitalists presence in west Berlin that was whole geographically located in East Germany, thus in 1948, the Soviets blocked all highways, railroads and canals from western-occupied Germany into western-occupied Berlin. This was to drive capitalist allies out of the city. This is what is known as the ‘Berlin Blockade’. The United States therefore, decided to apply planes to reach and supply million tons of food cargo into West Berlin. This effort, known as the ‘Berlin Airlift’

o Formation of antagonistic military alliances. The increased tension between capitalist west and the socialist east forced the military unions among big powers. With an intension to contain communist expansionism, in 1949 United States and other Western nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In 1955, in response to NATO, the Soviet Union and her satellite states of Eastern Europe founded a rival alliance, the Warsaw Pact. This split European nation between the two opposing camps.

o Nuclear Arms Race. Though they never actually fought, nuclear race was central to the Cold War. United States was the first to discover an atomic bomb in 1945. The Soviet Union successfully tested an atomic bomb in 1949. The Americans and then the Soviets developed a more powerful hydrogen bomb. Both superpowers eventually possessed substantial number of nuclear arms.

o Construction of Berlin wall (1961). Germany became the center for the conflict between the communists and capitalists. Initial cold war tensions were visible over Berlin. The East Germans were dissatisfied with life under the communist system, thus substantial number of people fled to West Germany, most via West Berlin. As these included skilled laborers, professionals, and intellectuals, their loss was having a devastating effect on the East German economy. However it was a shame over socialism. To prevent East-West migration, the Soviet-East Germany decided to construct a concrete wall on the border of east and West Berlin.

o The Marshall Plan versus Molotov Plan. Named after Secretary of State George Marshall, Marshall Plan was European Economic Recovery Program introduced by the United States to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II. The United States feared that the poverty, unemployment, and total confusion of the post-World War II period would lead to the rise of communist parties in many parties of Europe. Joseph Stalin, the Union Soviet premier believed that economic integration with the West would allow Eastern Bloc countries to escape Soviet control, and threaten communism, thus prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan aid. As an alternative, the Soviet Union introduced Molotov Plan to provide assistances to socialist countries. The Molotov plan was symbolic of the Soviet Union’s refusal to accept aid from the Marshall Plan, or allow any of their satellite states to do so, because of their belief that the Plan was an attempt to weaken Soviet interest in their satellite states.

o The Pig Bay incidence (1961). In January 1959 Fidel Castro waged a successful revolution againstAmerican-backed Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista, and established a communist government. The U.S. investments and interests in Cuba were attacked, and new government established a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. This alarmed U.S. A, fearing that Castro would provide the communists with a base to spread political propaganda throughout America. Therefore, the US government under President Dwight Eisenhower and later John F. Kennedy trained and armed a force of Cuban exiles to re-revolutionise Castrol’s communist government. On April 17, 1961, around 1400 American-trained Cuban exiles armed with American weapons landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba with the hope of overthrowing Castro’s government. As they landed at the Bay of Pigs landing force met with unexpectedly rapid counterattacks from Castro’s military, in which many attackers were killed, many others were captured. The movement fell apart. This is what is known as the ‘Pig bay Invasion.’

o Cuba Missiles Crisis (1962). In response to the 1961 American attempt to overthrow Cuban government, the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in a secret agreement with Cuban premier Fidel Castro decided to place Soviet’s nuclear missiles in Cuba, perhaps for protection purpose. The construction of missile sites in Cuba began in 1962. The entire project was meant to be kept secret until the missiles were operational. But the project was too big to be kept a secret that in the same year the US-spy plane secretly photographed the nuclear missiles sites built in the island. The US President Kennedy issued a public warning against the USSR’s launching of missiles in Cuba, ordering an urgent withdrawal. For 14 days the world stood on the brink of nuclear war. No one was sure how the Soviets leader would respond to the US demands. But the leaders of both recognised the devastating possibility of the nuclear war, thus the Soviets dismantled their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them home, in exchange for a U.S. public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba again. There was no one single reason why Khrushchev made the decision to order missiles onto the island. It resulted from a number of different factors;

ü The Pig bay invasion. The Soviet’s nuclear missile in Cuba followed the 1961 Pig bay incidence. Cuba was at risk of future attacks from the United States. Missiles would act as a deterrent against such an attack.

ü The US military bases in Turkey. The US had missiles in Turkey, which borders the Soviet Union, less than an hour flight from Moscow. Placing missiles in Cuba that is only 90 miles away from the US coastline would restore the balance of power.

ü The cold war tension. During the cold war, the world was at the brink of the nuclear war. Military bases became necessary infrastructure for wars. The two powers established their military bases as preparations for prospective warfare

Why did the cold war come to an end?

The USSR, strongest socialist country since 1920’s did not last longer on the earth. It ceased to exist in a few short years at the end of the 1980s and early 1990’s. Thus, the Cold War that divided the world for more than forty-five years ended. As said previously, Germany was the central of the East-West tension. Thus, the decline of the Berlin Wall in 1989 is often viewed as the symbolic end of the Cold War. Many factors contributed to end the East-West tension in the second half of 20th century.

o Death of Joseph Stalin. In March 1953, Joseph Stalin, who had ruled the Soviet Union since 1928, died at the age of 73. After Stalin's death, the Cold War changed almost overnight. The followed leaders were not interested with hostility with the west. Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and his policies, and called for "peaceful coexistence" between the East and West. This had undoubtedly reduced the tension between the capitalists and socialist countries

o The collapse of USSR. One of the Gorbachev’s policies was free election. His policies allowed local nationalism in the countries forming USSR and entire Eastern Europe. While the USSR’s economy was destabilized, nationalist struggles were at the same time overwhelming in the Soviet Union, and Gorbachev refused to send troops to protect Eastern European communist governments from mass demonstrations, demanding free elections. The communist governments of Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria all quickly resigned without bloodshed. By the end of the 1991, the USSR broke up into fifteen independent republics. The Cold War came to an end as Unite States was left the only giant power in the world.

o The role of Mikhail Gorbachev. Gorbachev's foreign policy, which he called, had also contributed to the Cold War's end. When appointed the new Soviet leader, Gorbachev was on the view that the enormous cost of military spending as an impact of the cold war frustrated Soviets economy, thus as the way to deal with economic problems, he sought to improve foreign relations. This could not achieve had it not been the cooperative attitude of the US President Regan who had earlier proposed to negotiate with the Soviet Union. Thus, in the mid-1980s, both superpower leaders were ready to talk. Gorbachev soon ordered the complete withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. He also withdrew Soviet support of communist revolutionaries fighting in Africa and other places. The policies by Mikhail Gorbachev finally brought the Cold War to end.

o Disarmament efforts. Central to the cold war, was arms race between east and west. Competition and the possession of nuclear arms greatly accelerated the tension between USA and USSR. The two countries possessed substantial nuclear arms which put the world at the brink of nuclear war. However, following the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 when the superpowers had come dangerously close to a nuclear war, the US and Soviets started to engage in the first arms control negotiations in order to reduce the future possibility of nuclear war. This gradual reduction of tension between the superpowers led to the successful conclusion of the multilateral Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) and the beginning of strategic arms limitation talks (SALT) between the United States and the Soviet Union. This helped to promote peaceful existence between the two sides

o Sino-soviet conflict. Another factor that contributed toward reduced tension between the United States and the Soviet Union during the decade was the increased hostility between the Soviets and the People's Republic of China. Though were all communist countries, the Chinese and Soviets were not in good terms. The soviets criticized Mao’s revolution was against Marx’s teachings that the revolution will be held by workers, in contrary, the Chinese revolution was waged by peasants. Their hostility after the 1960s missiles crisis in Cuba, when Chinese greatly criticized Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev's idea of "peaceful coexistence" between the Soviet bloc and the West.

o The role of United Nations Organization. Founded in 1945 with the explicit aim of maintaining peace in the world, the United Nations played a role in ending the Cold War. With both United States and Soviets members, UN helped promote an opinion and climate which favoured disarmament and peace.

o Formation of Non-Aligned movement. Third world countries proposed to form an organisation which would ally with neither of the sides. This was to remain neutral in the ongoing Cold war tension and promote peace climate in the world. The organisation was officially formed in 1961. The non-aligned nations by their advocacy of peace had a sobering effect on international relations. They helped create a climate of peace and harmony in international arena.

The worldwide effects of the cold war

o Cold war led to a large loss of life. Though was never actually fought between the two giant powers, millions of people, both civilians and military personnel, lost their lives in every corner of the world where the United States and Soviet Union proxy wars took place. The 1950’s Korean civil war, and the war in Vietnam were direct an impacts of the cold war.

o Cold war divided the world into two blocs. One effect of the cold war was that the two giant powers had splitEurope and the world in two opposing spheres of influence for four and a half decades. One pole led by USA and her allies, the other pole led by USSR and its allies of eastern followers, what is known as ‘bipolarity’ of world politics.

o It accelerated nuclear race. During the Cold War, the rival superpowers threatened one another with large numbers of nuclear weapons. Possessions of more powerful than the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Each nation in the two camps strived to possess substantial number of weapons to deter a massive surprise attack from the rival powers

o Occurrence of proxy wars. Though the two giant powers never entered into direct armed confrontations, they fought what came to be known as the proxy war. Proxy war means the conflict instigated by opposing powers that do not fight against each other directly, instead they uses third parties to do fighting for them. Vietnam War is a typical proxy war during the cold war under the influence US, Soviet Union and to a large extent China. The Korean 1950’s civil war serves another example, when the United States supported South Korea, while the Soviet Union supported North Korea.

o Establishment of military bases. The efforts of the USA and USSR during the cold war were directed on the establishment of military bases around the world. This means the presence of foreign troops on the soil of independent nations. Though has traditionally been seen as an unusual and uncomfortable reality, the great powers had yet realised that the presence of oversea bases are the first mechanism of a mass network, which works to maintain the control exercised by great powers, becoming the infrastructure for wars. Thus, as an outcome of the hostility emerged after World War II, the United States deployed its forces to large foreign bases abroad in order to contain the Soviet Union. Forexample, Ukraine has served as base for innumerous USSR troops and installations during the Cold War. The USA also established military bases in countries like Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Turkey etc.

o Formation of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). NAM was formed during the Cold War, as an organization of States that did not seek to formally align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union, but sought to remain independent or neutral, after realising that they were concerned and affected with the US—Soviets conflict. The basic concept for the group originated in 1955 Afro-Asian Bandung Conference held in Indonesia. Subsequently, the organisation had effectively come into operation in 1961.

o Cold war accelerated decolonisation movements in Africa. The era of cold war coincided with the decolonisation movements in Africa. The two giant powers were seeking to expand their ideologies and occupy greater influence in the world politics. They embarked on supporting decolonisation movements in Africa. The USA Forexample formed UNITA, the nationalist political party, to fight for independence of Angola. Though Angola had eventually won its independence through the Soviets-backed MPLA, the role of UNITA was vital

The Cold War dominated the world political arena for forty-five years. The two giant powers had greater impacts on the world politics; they succeeded to split the world into two antagonistic zones. As discussed abover, the hostility started to crumble in 1980s, and eventually came to an end 1990’s with the collapse communist USSR. The role of Mikhail Gorbachev was very crucial in this regard. In his resignation speech, Gorbachev declared, “An end has been put to the ‘Cold War, the arms race, and the insane militarization of our country, which crippled our economy, distorted our thinking, and undermined our morals. The threat of a world war is no more.” The cold war ended after thedissolution of the Soviet Union, when the world became unipolar with the United States the sole remaining superpower. However, the legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs.

ZIONISM AND THE QUESTION OF MIDDLE EAST CRISIS

What is Zionism?

Zionism is the political movement of Jews going back to Palestine to establish their independent state of Israel. It is in other words, the national movement for the return of the Jewish people to their homeland and the resumption of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel. The origin of the word ‘Zionism’ is the biblical word ‘Zion,’ often used as a synonym for Jerusalem and the Land of Israel.

The Land of Israel was without doubt the birthplace of the Jewish people. From the biblical point of view there is long connection between the Jews and the land. This can be traced back almost 4,000 years when God himself declared to Abraham that He would grant him and his descendants, a land as an unconditional and eternal promise (Genesis 12). This is the Land now known as Israel, named after Abraham’s grandson, whose descendants are Jewish People. Their history and life in ancient Israel is recorded in detail in the Hebrew book. 

Their dispersion in European countries can be traced back traced during the period of Roman Empire. There was frequent warfare with the Romans, which resulted to the destruction of temple. Jews were eventually exiled by Romans in 135 after they were defeated in the three years war. Their land was renamed Palestine and the greater part of their population went into exile as captives, slaves and refugees. The Muslim conquest of the land took place over a number of centuries under the auspices of the Islamic caliphate starting in the seventh century and continuing through the time of Ottoman rule in the 19th century. Though were forcibly exiled from their land, over centuries in the Diaspora, the people never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it. They still maintained a strong and unique relationship with their historical homeland with the belief that they will one day return and establish the independent Jewish state.

Zionism existed in Israel long ago, even before 19th century. Jews had several times been exiled and restored their land. However, Zionism as an organized movement in the 19th century is generally considered to have been founded by one, an Austrian Journalist of Jewish origin, Theodor Herzl, who spent most of his adult life fighting for a Jewish homeland. Herzl began his movements by writing pamphlets promoting Jewish state. Der Judenstaat-meaning ‘The State of the Jews’ was published 1896 in which he argued that the Jewish people should leave Europe for Palestine, their historic homeland.In 1897, Herzl convened the First Jews Conferences in Basle-Switzerland, with the same idea of promoting Jews movement to Palestine. In his struggles, Herzl met with British Colonial Secretary, by then Joseph Chamberlain seeking for their support to establish Jewish state. Chamberlain proposed the Jewish autonomous region in Uganda-Eastern Africa, as a temporary solution until Palestine could be secured. However Jews dream was Palestine. In 1904 Herzl died in Vienna at age 44. Zionist struggles continued. Substantial number of Jews went back to Palestine in the first half of 20th century.

What caused Zionism?

o Anti-Semitism. Undoubtedly, the modern Zionism might not have arisen as an active national movement in the 19th century without anti-Semitism in Europe. Jews were in Diaspora grievously persecuted. Jews were expelled from almost every European country, particularly Germany and France, Portugal and Russia. They had totally lost the hope of fundamental change in their lives. Establishment of their home state was the only solution. Thus, anti-Semitic campaigns in Europe organized Zionism into a political movement.

o The role of Theodor Herzl. Although he died more than 40 years before the establishment of the state of Israel, Herzl was without doubt the correct architect of Zionism, a movement to establish a Jewish homeland. Through his writings he promoted greater sense of awareness and unity among the Jews in Diaspora. It is Herzl who organized a world congress of Zionists that met in Base-Switzerland, in 1897. He used much of his time to negotiate big western countries to support their move to Palestine. His role cannot be underestimated.

o Balfour Declaration. In November 1917 British government via foreign minister Arthur Balfour issued what came to be known as Balfour Declaration. The Declaration stated: “His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country. The declaration was in favor of the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This endorsement, increased Jews hope to achieve their dream something which promoted Zionism.

o The role of United States of America. From the very beginning, Americans had viewed the Jews with special appreciation in their efforts to build home state. During more than five decades of their struggles to build their state, the Israelis looked to the United States for political inspiration, financial, military and diplomatic support. The Americans supported them. Americans support gave hope Jews that they would achieve their dream as they are supported by world’s big nations. It is for this reason that the USA president Harry S. Truman recognized the new nation on the same day. Today the United States and Israel are the closest friends and allies.

CREATION AND DECLARATION OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL

Palestine was since the end of the First World War a British mandate. It was mandated to Britain following the defeat of Ottoman Empire in the war. Substantial number of Jews purchased land in Palestine during British dominance.Arabs strongly opposed Jewish immigration to Palestine and started attacking them. Due to the increase in Arab attacks, the British appointed a ‘Peel commission’ in 1936 to investigate the matter. The Commission recommended the partition of the country between Arabs and Jews, but Arabs rejected the idea. Upon the end of the Second World War, British government whose economy was crippled by the war concluded that they could no longer manage Palestine. Perhaps it wanted to exclude itself from the conflict that had arisen in Palestine between Jews and Arabs,thus announced its intent to terminate the Mandate for Palestine, referring the matter to the United Nations. UN-special committee for Palestine was formed to recommend on the matter. In November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly voted (resolution 181) to partition Palestine between a Jewish and an Arab state, with internationalization of Jerusalem. The culmination of nearly two thousand years of hopes by Jewish people that they would one day return to the land from which the Romans expelled them, was on 14th May 1948 when the state of Israel was officially declared and David Ben Gurion became the first Prime Minister. However, the area of religious significance surrounding Jerusalem would remain under international control administered by the United Nations.

What was the UN motive to partition Palestine and create Israel?

It should be understood that, the United Nations resolution neither legally partitioned Palestine nor gave Jews legal right to declare their independent state. It merely recommended that the partition plan be accepted and implemented by the concerned parties. So creation of the state of Israel out of Palestine was acting upon recommendations of the United Nations. The crucial question is what made the United Nations decide upon partition.

o To save Jews from persecution and discriminations. It is clear that Jews had no permanent home until 1948. In Diaspora they were subject to persecutions, humiliations and discriminations by the natives. Many of them were killed in concentration camps during Nazism in Germany. In early 1930’s, the Jewish population of Europe stood at over nine million. Between five to six million Jews were killed till the end of the Second World War. In recognition of the grave injustice perpetrated against the Jews in Diaspora, the United Nations proposed a Jewish state

o Maintenance of peace. The United Nations was created mainly for the maintenance of peace and security in the world. The situation in Palestine around 1940’s constituted a threat to the peace, thus the United Nations should by any means take action to prevent. The UN decision was maintenance of international peace

OUTBREAK OF ARAB-ISRAEL CONFLICT

Middle East Crisis refers to the political tension, military conflicts and disputes between a number of Arab countries and Israel. The Middle East region has probably suffered more rivalry and conflict than any other part of the world. Dating from the end of 19th century, the Arabs-Israel conflict gained momentum after the state of Israel was announced in may 1948. The United Nations recommendation of the partition of British-mandate Palestine into two separate states, one for Jews and one for Arabs, was negatively received by Arabs. While Zionist leaders accepted the proposal, Arabs strongly rejected. Fighting breaks out soon thereafter, as all the surrounding Arab states joined forces. Soon after the state of Israel was officially declared on 14th may 1948, Arabic nations neighboring Palestine, particularly Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon lunched joint attacks to Israel. In the next forty years period, Arab nations initiated four great wars against Israel. The second war occurred in 1956. This is also known as the Suez War. Israel became convinced that the Arabs were preparing to attack her. Rather than wait to be attacked, the Israelis with the support of Great Britain and France launched an attack against Egypt. The 1967’s war. This is alternatively known as ‘The Six Days War’, fought between June 5th and June 10th 1967. By the end of this six-day war, Israel was left in control of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, as well as Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and Syria's Golan Heights. The 1970 war of attrition, and 1973 Yom Kippur War. Middle East countries have throughout the second half of 20th century been in crisis.

What is the cause of Arab-Israel conflict? 

Land question. Undoubtedly, the conflict began as a struggle over land. The Land of Canaan (now Israel and Palestine) was, according to book of Hebrew promised by God to the descendants of Abraham. This is also mentioned in the Qur'an. The descendants of Abraham include Arabs also. Both, Jews and Muslims believe that they are entitled to the land. Those of Jewish faith believe that it is their “Promised Land” while the Muslims believe that the land is theirs because of the simple fact that they have been living here since the past so many centuries. Form religious point of view, the Arabs claim that the land belongs to them as God granted it to the elder son, Ishmael. This is the root cause of Arabs-Israel conflict. 

The issue of Jerusalem. One cause of the ongoing Arab-Israel conflict in the city of Jerusalem. The holy city of Jerusalem is sacred to the followers of three global religions; Jews, Muslims and Christians. For Christians, though make the minority of Jerusalem’s population, the city is the site of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. For Jews, who make the majority o f the population, the city is the holiest city in the world. It is the capital of their ancient Israelite kingdom and the former location of the Jewish temples. For Muslims, the city is one of Islam's holiest sites, after Mecca and Medina; they call it Al-Quds. Thus the city attracts worshippers from around the world.

The cold war. By the early 1960s, the Middle Eastern region was becoming a hot spot of Cold War rivalry between the USA and USSR. The US and the Soviet Union competed for areas of influence in the Middle East. The USSR had initially supported the UN decision to partition Palestine, and maintained a policy of friendship with Israel. Since the Israelis were supported by the USA, as influence of the cold war, the Soviets switched sides in the Arab–Israeli conflict and started supporting the Arabs. Egypt had been in close communication and received political and financial support from the Soviet Union. Cold war had great impact in accelerating Arab-Israel conflict.

Religious differences. Although the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is largely a conflict over land, religious differences have great contribution in the crisis. Some groups opposed to the peace process invoke religious arguments in the matter.Many Muslim countries are backing the Palestinians in order to promote their own interests

Jews expansionism. Since its formation, Israelites had been waging expansionist wars. In June 1967 Arab-Israeli War in which Israel had soundly defeated the armies of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, had occupied the West Bank, Syria's Golan Heights, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and Gaza. This could also be viewed as negative as it increased hostility from the Arabs who believed Israel should have no land whatsoever.

Consequences of Arab-Israel conflict

o Loss of lives of many people. The greatest loss of the ongoing Arab-Israel conflict murdering of thousands of people, both civilians and soldiers. For example, the Deir Yassin massacre (1948 war) witnessed the death of more than 200 men, women and children. Moreover, the same month, the Arabs retaliated, killing 77 mainly Jewish doctors and nurses.

o The problem of refugees. The Arab-Israel wars resulted in the creation of the Palestinian refugee crisis. Following the creation of the state of Israel, hundred thousand Palestinians lived in the region that became Israel had left to become refugees, and most of them have remained in camps ever since.

o Territorial Gain for Israel. Arab-Israel conflict had to Jews been expansionist wars. Through military force, Israel retained some territory originally assigned to the Arabs according to the partition plan. Many Arabs territories were conquered and established Jews settlements 

o It caused global oil crisis. The 1770s oil crisis was certainly an outcome of Arab-Israel conflict. After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed an embargo against the United States due to their military support to Israel. The embargoes were extended to other countries that supported Israel including the Netherlands, Portugal, and South Africa.

ARAB-ISRAEL PEACE NEGOTIATIONS (CAMP DAVID ACCORDS)

The world had never remained silent to the ongoing Middle East crisis. Efforts had for long been taken by two sides with the intervention of big powers and world’s international organisations to restore peace in the region. The Unite Nations and countless American diplomats have held almost continuously talks to bring about peace between Israel and its surrounding Arab enemies. From that tangled history, the most significant was 1978 Camp David accord.

Camp David Accord was an agreement signed between the Egyptian president Anwar Al-Sadat andIsraeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, under mediation of the US president Jimmy Carter, establishing a framework for peace between Egypt and Israel. Egypt and Israel developed a state of war since the founding of Israel in 1948. It was not surprise that Egypt chose diplomatic approach to retain her territories after long fight with Israel. Egypt was almost severely defeated in all its warfare with the Jews. Thus, in 1978 the two heads of sates met in the United States under the mediation of the US president to negotiate about the peace in Middle East. After twelve days of negotiation at the US presidential retreat of Camp David, on 17th September 1978, the two heads of states signed a document entitled “Camp David Accords-The Framework for Peace in the Middle East.”

The Camp David Accords have their roots in Sadat’s unprecedented visit to Jerusalem. Despite the fact that the two countries did not have diplomatic relations and were technically still at war, in November 1977, President Sadat announced that he is ready to go to the Israeli Knesset (Parliament) itself to resolve the Mid-East conflict. On 19-21 November 1977, Sadat visited Jerusalem and addressed Israeli Parliament of his intention to develop diplomatic relations. This was undoubtedly the first ever visit to Israel by Arab head of the state. It was around these circumstances that the heads from two sides met in USA for negotiation one year later.

Why camp David Accords?

· Egypt’s desire to restore Sinai Peninsula peacefully. After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Egypt realized that their issues cannot be resolved with mere fighting but diplomatic strategy. Their 30 years fights with Israel yielded no fruits but loss of Sinai Peninsula and Gaza to Israel

· Israel’s attempts to weaken Arab unity. At the time of Camp David it was generally believed that Egypt was the key to war and peace in the Middle East. If Egypt chose peace, other Arab states would eventually follow. If they did not, at least there would be no further wars

· The role of Anwar Al-Sadat. It would have not been, had it not been the role of Egypt’s President Anwar Sadat, who turned to diplomacy as his ultimate weapon, a move which was never taken up by any Arab state previously. Sadat’s visit initiated a peace negotiation

· The role of United States of America. The USA played active role in the Middle East peace process. Initial efforts to make the two sides negotiate were mediated by the US Secretary Kissinger. Above all, was the President Jimmy Carter. Upon assuming office on January 1977, Carter moved to rejuvenate the Middle East peace process. Carter supervised the negotiation, and he himself became the witness of the Accords signed between the two.

How did Arabs react to Camp David accord?

Reactions to the Accords and the Treaty were mixed; while Israelis celebrated, Arab nations felt betrayed and strongly opposed the idea. It should be clear that, Camp David Accord was not a negotiation between Arabs and Israel, but a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt. Arabs had not accepted it. Thus, their reactions to the signing of the peace treaty were far more harsh and swift than anticipated. Following the Camp David Accord;

Firstly, President Anwar Sadat was assassinated in October 1981 by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad who strongly opposed the idea of Egypt-Israel peace agreements.

Secondly, Egypt was suspended from the Arab League and isolated by all surrounding Arab states. Members of Arab League immediately met in Baghdad-Iraq, agreeing on outlining political and economic sanctions against Egypt. Egypt was eventually suspended from the Arab League.

Consequences of Camp David Accord

· Assassination of Anwar Al-Sadat. President Anwar Sadat was assassinated in October 1981 by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad who strongly opposed the idea of Egypt-Israel peace agreements.

· Egypt restored Sinai Peninsula. The first deal in the agreements was for Israel to give over the control of Sinai to Egypt within three months. Following this, Israel agreed to vacate Sinai and handled it back to Egypt

· The agreement between Egypt and Israel established diplomatic relations between the two countries. In return of the restoration of Sinai Peninsula, Egypt agreed to maintain complete diplomatic terms with Israel. The peace treaty was signed and ambassadors exchanged

· Israel became a trade partner with Egypt and allowed to use Suez Canal. Egypt under President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and gave the freedom of transit through it to all countries except Israel. This was because of traditional Arab-Israeli rivalry. The agreements also comprised of terms allowing Israel access through the canal

· It weakened Arab league. The treaty was undoubtedly the blow to Arabs nationalism against Israel. Egypt that was the most powerful in the Arab unity against Israel was excluded from the league.

· It laid a foundation for other Israeli-Arabs negotiations and treaties. It provided a lesson to Arabs that it was possible for Arabs to negotiate with Israel. This gave an avenue for subsequent Israel negotiations with Jordan and Palestine

ARMSRACE

Arms race simply means the competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. Arms race in this context was the stiff competition on production of weapons among big powers. Arms competition can be traced back in the period towards the end of 19th century. Engineered by imperialistic motives, European nations competed to build up their military capacities. Britain had by the time, the world’s strongest navy. No wonder, since it possessed large colonial empire. This was to make sure that none of the other Great Powers would try to seize parts of its empire or invade Britain itself. France, Germany and many other nations of Europe struggled to challenge British naval superiority. For example in 1898, Kaiser Wilhelm announced that Germany was going to build more battleships and invest more in weaponry production, so that it could defend itself and protect its growing overseas trade. Britain saw Germany’s shipbuilding programme as a threat, thus emphasized on strengthening to ensure no other nation could defeat her. They ended with establishment of very stronger armies, something which led to the outbreak of the world war one.

However, the heydays of arms race was the period after the second world war, when witnessed the world split into two antagonistic zones; west capitalists and east socialists. The competition was now directed in the production of nuclear arms, the most destructive weapons ever. United States was the first to discover nuclear weapons in 1945. To balance power with the US, the Soviets embarked on their nuclear project that became successful in 1949. The United States wanted their military to be stronger than the Soviets’. Thus, the two giant powers with their respective followers began a nuclear arms race that continued unabated throughout the second half of 20th century. Eventually almost all big powers became nuclear possessors in the near future.

What caused Arms Race?

The need to maintain the balance of power. The primary objective of army build up is to balance power so that no one nation should militarily be a threat to other powers. This is why in the late 19th century many nations invested in military build up to equalize their power with superior Britain. Each of the Great Powers became involved in an arms race to make sure they had enough forces to win a war. But this does not mean they intended to fight.

Cold war tension. A nuclear arms race developed during the Cold War, an intense period between the Soviet Union, and the United States and some other countries. Due to cold war tension, the two sides engaged in the production of the nuclear weapons as preparation for anticipated world war three

Economic reason. Some countries engaged in weaponry production for economic motives. They had been selling them to countries with warfare. Since the world war one, the United States remains the world’s preeminent exporter of arms. Developing nations continued to be the largest buyers of arms.

Self-protection. Strong military means protection against foreign invasion. Each country knew that it was important to make sure that its forces balanced those of any potential enemy, so that enemy would be less likely to attack. In this sense, building up armed forces was actually a way of self-defence

Advancement of science and technology. Development of weaponry is an accidental by-product of the advancement of science and technology. As science and technology advances, more sophiscated weapons had been produced by the big powers.

Impacts of arms race

o Deaths and depopulation. Many people lost their lives due to the use of very destructive weapons

o It created tension and insecurity. The arms race led both Americans and Soviets with their respective followers fear that nuclear war could happen at any time, thus living in tension and insecurity

o Arms race accelerated cold war between east and west. Nuclear arms race became an integral part of the cold war

o Outbreak of the wars. For instance, before World War I, many European nations grew their military powers something which made war inevitable.

o Arms race had also economic effects. It reduced the level of resources that could be invested in production or social services. Government’s budgets were directed in arms buildup

o Emergence of terrorism due to spread of weapons in third world countries. Third world countries became the damping place of weapons produced by big powers